Cause Of Waterborne Disease Research Articles

Households Water Purification Using Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) in Gombe Metropolis, Gombe State, Nigeria

Assessment of water quality has been an important issue nowadays as the available water supply is severely polluted and can be the cause of waterborne diseases like cholera, diarrhea and dysentery. Solar disinfection (SODIS) is an efficient, low technology and cost-effective method for inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms in low-income communities where clean drinking water is limited or absent. The study was designed to assess the information about sanitation behavior at the household level using a structured questionnaire and to provide cost-effective method for its treatment. The result of the bacteriological analysis shows that all the water samples were found to harbour coliforms organisms in numbers greater than the required WHO/FAO/NSDWQ standards. The isolated organisms were identified to be Enterobacter aerogenes, species. SODIS was proven to be a more environmentally friendly and low-cost method to disinfect water against the conventional methods of water treatment that require high technology and it is time-consuming. In addition, the chemical used in the treatment process might be toxic. Providing the community with simple water treatment techniques using the SODIS method, and intensive health education and sanitation practices for the community are highly recommended.

Dengue outbreak after devastating floods: double trouble for Pakistan

Dengue outbreak after devastating floods: double trouble for Pakistan

Two-year monitoring of enterovirus and rotavirus A in recreational freshwater from an island region, Pará State, northern Brazil

Enteric viruses are major causes of waterborne diseases and are present in large quantities in the stools of infected individuals. Its viability in the environment lasts for months, favoring the contamination of water used for consumption and recreation. The study aimed to monitor monthly the circulation of enterovirus (EV) and group A rotavirus (RVA) in recreational freshwater from an island region used as a bathhouse in northern Brazil, from January 2012 to December 2013. The viral RNA was obtained using guanidine isothiocyanate/silica after viral concentration by adsorption-elution method. The molecular detection was carried out by semi (EV) and nested-PCR (RVA) and the amplicons were sequenced on automated sequencer. At least one of these viruses was detected on 40.4% (42/104) of the samples. RVA was the most frequent (n = 32; 30.8%) when compared to EV (n = 20; 19.2%). Co-circulation between both was identified in 9.6% (n = 10). The highest viral positivity was found in SP02 (46.1%). The highest viral positivity was observed during high tides (57.7%; 60/104). Most EV samples were characterized as coxsackievirus (CV) A5 (85.7%, 12/14) and others as Sabin 1 poliovirus (14.2%, 2/14). The RVA positive samples were genotyped as G2, G3, G9, G12, P[8], P[4], and P[6]. These viruses were detected in 35.6% (37/104) of the samples with an acceptable concentration of fecal coliform bacteria. These results demonstrate the contamination of surface water intended for recreation by enteric viruses of Public Health concern even when bacterial indicators are within the tolerated limit, a factor that confirms the need for public policies aimed the sewage treatment before its release into water bodies.

An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with drinking water in north-eastern Italy, August 2019: microbiological and environmental investigations.

Cryptosporidium is a leading global cause of waterborne disease, with many reported outbreaks related to main water supplies. In August 2019, an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis involving 80 cases occurred among 114 vacationers in a small municipality located in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines, north-eastern Italy. After excluding a potential food-borne outbreak, the epidemiological investigation focussed on the hypothesis of a waterborne outbreak. This was confirmed by the finding of Cryptosporidium oocysts in stools of the cases and in water samples from the municipal water network. Molecular characterisation revealed the zoonotic species Cryptosporidium parvum as the causative agent. A single subtype (IIdA25G1) was found among all cases, and in one of two positive water samples. The municipality’s water supply used spring water that only received a disinfection treatment insufficient to inactivate the parasite. Possible entry means into the water mains were found through further environmental investigations. As these types of water supplies are particularly vulnerable to various environmental factors, a control system based on the risk assessment of each phase of the water supply chain is required to guarantee water safety. Effective methods for detection of protozoan pathogens, which are generally excluded from routine water supply analysis, should be applied.

Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases in Sudoorpashchim Province

Introduction: Unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation, and lack of personal hygiene are the major causes of waterborne diseases. Water-induced health problem includes typhoid, acute gastroenteritis, diarrhea, dysentery, and hepatitis. In the Sudoorpashchim province, people suffer from these water-related diseases, and the frequency of the problem is intense in the summer. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of waterborne diseases in Sudoorpashchim province, far western region of Nepal. Methods: The data was collected from the provincial health directorate at Dipayal and analysed using the Origin 2010 software Results: The findings reveal that the prevalence of waterborne diseases gradually decreased as compared to last four to five years and attended 5.6% in FY 2019/2020, signifying an improvement in the personal hygiene of the people. Conclusions: The prevalence of waterborne diseases sharply decreased in the FY 2019/2020, indicate the rectification in the personal hygiene of people.

Socio-demographic and water handling practices affecting quality of household drinking water in Kisii Town, Kisii County, Kenya

Household drinking water quality is dependent on a number of determinants which could be arising at the source, during transportation or due to storage and handling practices. The challenge of unsafe water is even big in urban settings that are often characterized by exponential population growth, increased urbanization, industrialization and poor sanitary facilities. Contaminated water is a leading cause of water borne diseases which are a major public health and policy makers concern. In fact, Water borne diseases are third cause of mortality in Kenya whereas they are ranked second in Kisii. The study was designed to investigate the factors affecting household drinking water quality in Kisii Town that has four main zones which include: Mwembe, Jogoo, Nyanchwa and CBD. Demographics, level of awareness in terms of water quality as well as hygiene and sanitation practices of the study population were studied using questionnaires. The questionnaires were filled by interviewing household heads from 422 sampled households. Qualitative data was also obtained by use of Focused group discussions (FGDs). Perspectives of key people such as public health officers were acquired through Key informant interviews (KIIs). The study found a significant relationship between household size and water quality in terms of presence of total coliforms. The following hygiene and sanitation factors were found to be having significant relationship with presence of E. coli in household drinking water; source of water (p = 0.002), transportation container (p = 0.029), covering during transportation (p = 0.012), storage container (p < 0.001), method of drawing from storage container (p < 0.001), feces disposal (p = 0.001) and garbage disposal method (p = 0.04). The conclusion of this study is that good hygiene and sanitation practices are important in ensuring total safety of drinking water at the point of use. There is therefore need for more capacity building in this region to ensure that people do not consume contaminated water which is a major contributing factor to water-borne diseases.

Evaluation of the suitability of pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) as an indicator virus for water safety and quality

Wastewater pollution is one of the main causes of waterborne diseases (e.g., diarrheal diseases) because wastewater commonly contains a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms, notably human enteric viruses. Monitoring multiple pathogenic viruses in waters simultaneously is impractical and expensive, so monitoring through virus indicators is essential to ensure water safety and quality. Recently, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) was found as one of the most prevalent viruses in the human gut microbiota and consistently present at high concentrations in human feces and domestic wastewater. This study reviewed the latest information on the presence of PMMoV and human enteric viruses in water environments and in wastewater (water) treatment systems to evaluate the suitability of PMMoV as an indicator virus for water safety and quality. PMMoV was present in all types of waters (e.g., wastewater, surface water, groundwater, coastal water and drinking water) in greater prevalence than human enteric viruses. PMMoV was also removed less or similar to human enteric viruses in various wastewater (water) treatment systems (including disinfection treatment). These results suggest that PMMoV can be used as a suitable indicator virus for 1) assessment of water quality polluted by domestic wastewater; 2) assessment of virus removal efficiency in drinking water treatment plants and 3) assessment of viral safety for drinking water.

Synthesis and application of g-C3N4/Fe3O4/Ag nanocomposite for the efficient photocatalytic inactivation of Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis bacteria in aqueous solutions

Contamination of water with bacteria is one of the main causes of waterborne diseases. The photocatalytic method on the basis of bacterial inactivation seems to be a suitable disinfectant due to the lack of by-products formation. Herein, g-C3N4/Fe3O4/Ag nanocomposite combined with UV-light irradiation was applied for the inactivation two well-known bacteria namely, E. coli and B. subtilis. The nanocomposite was prepared by a hydrothermal method, and subsequently it was characterized by XRD, FT-IR, SEM, EDX and PL analyses. The optimum conditions established for the inactivation of both bacteria were as follows: nanocomposite dosage 3 g/L and bacterial density of 103 CFU/mL. In the meantime, the efficient inactivation of E. coli and B. subtilis took 30 and 150 min, respectively. The results also revealed that inactivation rate dropped with an increase in the bacterial density. It is also pointed out that OH˚ was found out to be the main radical species involved in the inactivation process. Finally, the kinetic results indicated that the inactivation of E. coli and B. subtilis followed the Weibull model. It is concluded that C3N4/Fe3O4/Ag nanocomposite along with UV-light irradiation is highly effective in inactivating E. coli and B. subtilis bacteria in the aqueous solutions.

Bacteriological quality of drinking water from source and point of use and associated factors among households in Eastern Ethiopia.

BackgroundBiological deterioration of drinking water is the major cause of waterborne disease globally. However, there is a paucity of information on identifying the point where deterioration of the bacteriological quality of drinking water occurs (source or point of use) and associated factors among households in developing countries, especially in Ethiopia.MethodA community based cross-sectional study design was conducted among 425 households in Eastern Ethiopia. Households with at least one child under-five years of age were included in the study. A total of 448 Water samples (425 from households and 23 from water sources) were collected and analyzed by the membrane filtration method to identify Thermotolerant coliform. Binary logistic regression was performed to assess the association between each independent and dependent variable. Adjusted Odd Ratios along with 95% Confidence intervals were estimated to identify factors associated with the outcome variable.ResultThis study revealed that 21.7%; 95% CI (4.5%, 39.1%) of water sources and 83.3%; 95% CI (79.8%, 87.1%) of households’ drinking water were contaminated by thermotolerant coliform. Drinking water samples from households with poor wealth index [AOR = 9.63; 95%CI (2.92, 31.69)], households with unimproved sanitation facility [AOR = 2.81; 95%CI (1.31, 6.01)], households which shares their house with animal [AOR = 3.73; 95%CI (1.66, 8.37)], households that didn’t practice household water treatment [AOR = 3.42; 95%CI (1.60, 7.31)] and not washing hands before water collection [AOR = 7.04; 95%CI (2.22, 22.30)] were significantly associated with deterioration of bacteriological quality of household drinking water.ConclusionThis study indicates that the bacteriological quality of drinking water deteriorates from source to point of use. Thus, health education programs on water, sanitation, hygienic practice must be enhanced to improve the quality of drinking water.

Photodynamic Inactivation of Legionella pneumophila Biofilm Formation by Cationic Tetra- and Tripyridylporphyrins in Waters of Different Hardness.

The bacterium Legionella pneumophila is still one of the probable causes of waterborne diseases, causing serious respiratory illnesses. In the aquatic systems, L. pneumophila exists inside free-living amoebae or can form biofilms. Currently developed disinfection methods are not sufficient for complete eradication of L. pneumophila biofilms in water systems of interest. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is a method that results in an antimicrobial effect by using a combination of light and a photosensitizer (PS). In this work, the effect of PDI in waters of natural origin and of different hardness, as a treatment against L. pneumophila biofilm, was investigated. Three cationic tripyridylporphyrins, which were previously described as efficient agents against L. pneumophila alone, were used as PSs. We studied how differences in water hardness affect the PSs’ stability, the production of singlet oxygen, and the PDI activity on L. pneumophila adhesion and biofilm formation and in biofilm destruction. Amphiphilic porphyrin showed a stronger tendency for aggregation in hard and soft water, but its production of singlet oxygen was higher in comparison to tri- and tetracationic hydrophilic porphyrins that were stable in all water samples. All three studied porphyrins were shown to be effective as PDI agents against the adhesion of the L. pneumophila to polystyrene, against biofilm formation, and in the destruction of the formed biofilm, in their micromolar concentrations. However, a higher number of dissolved ions, i.e., water hardness, generally reduced somewhat the PDI activity of all the porphyrins at all tested biofilm growth stages.

Label-Free Detection of Escherichia coli from Mixed Bacterial Cultures Using Bacteriophage T4 on Plasmonic Fiber-Optic Sensor.

Consumption of water contaminated with pathogenic bacteria is a major cause of water-borne diseases. To address this challenge, we have developed a novel and sensitive sensing scheme for the rapid detection of bacteria (Escherichia coliB40) on a fiber-optic platform using bacteriophage (T4) as a bio-recognition element. The novelty of our sensing scheme is that instead of bacteriophages, bacteria (analyte) were first captured on the sensing surface and then the sensing surface was subjected to bacteriophages for specific detection of bacteria. The sensor was subjected to 100 to 107 cfu/mL of E. coliB40 spiked in a lake water matrix, and the least concentration of bacteria that could be easily detected was found to be 1000 cfu/mL. The control studies were performed with nonhost bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bacteriophage T4, being specific to its host E. coliB40, did not interact with P. aeruginosa captured on the sensing probe, giving a negligible nonspecific response. Due to the specificity of bacteriophages to its host bacteria, it is possible to use this scheme to carry out the detection of specific bacteria in a mixed sample (containing a combination of bacteria) using bacteriophages specific to it. The sensor was able to detect E. coliB40 (target bacteria) even in the presence of a very high concentration (1000 times higher) of P. aeruginosa (nontarget bacteria).

Socio-Demographic and Water Handling Practices Affecting Quality of Household Drinking Water in Kisii Town, Kisii County, Kenya

Household drinking water quality is dependent on a number of determinants which could be arising at the source, during transportation or due to storage and handling practices. The challenge is even big in urban settings that are often characterized by exponential population growth, increased urbanization, industrialization and poor sanitary facilities. Contaminated water is a leading cause of water borne diseases which are a major public health and policy makers concern. The study was designed to investigate the factors affecting household drinking water quality in Kisii Town, Kisii County, Kenya. The study was conducted in the four zones of Kisii town which include: Mwembe, Jogoo, Nyanchwa and CBD. Demographics, level of awareness in terms of water quality, hygiene and sanitation practices of the study population were studied using questionnaires. The questionnaires were filled by interviewing household heads from 422 sampled households. Qualitative data was also obtained by use of Focused group discussions (FGDs). Perspectives of key people such as public health officers were acquired through Key informant interviews (KIIs). The study found a significant relationship between household size and water quality in terms of presence of total coli forms. A strong relationship was also found between socio-economic factors (level of education, p<0.001 as well as level of income, p<0.001) and drinking water source which in turn affects water quality. The following hygiene and sanitation factors were found to be having significant relationship with presence of E. coli in household drinking water; source of water(p=0.002), transportation container (p=0.029), covering during transportation (p=0.012), storage container (p<0.001), method of drawing from storage container(p<0.001), feces disposal (p=0.001) and garbage disposal method (p=0.04). The conclusion of this study is that good hygiene and sanitation practices are important in ensuring total safety of drinking water at the point of use. There is therefore need for more capacity building in this region to ensure that people do not consume contaminated water which is a major contributing factor to water-borne diseases.

Faecal contamination in groundwater and its association with population density: a study in coastal areas of Semarang

Increased population density causes the supply of clean water to be unable to meet the requirements. The coastal area of Semarang is also faced with a tidal problem. While good sanitation is a top priority in improving health, nutrition and productivity (6th SDG target), the cause of water borne disease must be considered. This research was conducted in May 2019 at 30 points in the coastal area of Semarang, covering 9 sub-districts. Assessment of microbiology is carried out on coliform parameters and the presence of Eschericia coli. Data on septic tank type, depth, distance of the septic tank to the sample points and drainage frequency were collected. Population data are based on data from BPS. Hydrogeological mapping was used to describe the distribution of faecal contamination and other factors. Around 73.3% of the groundwater samples exceeded the coliform parameter limit and 86.7% of the samples were found to have E. coli. Only 37.5% of the septic tank is cemented and 66.7% with a safe distance from the water source. Population density was not significantly related to poor groundwater quality, because even though the area is less densely populated, E. coli is found positive in ground water.

Household Expenditure on Diarrhea Treatment among Under Five Children in Godawari Municipality of Nepal.

Diarrheal disease is a global public health problem. In Nepal, diarrhea is still the leading cause of waterborne disease, which constitutes 48% among all hospitalized disease cases who come to health center for treatment. Despite low treatment cost of diarrhea, out-of-pocket expenditure required at the time of treatment is a major barrier to seek health care. This study, therefore, aims to explore household expenditure for the diarrheal treatment in under five children and its financial burden in households. A community based cross sectional study was carried out in 14 wards of Godawari Municipality among under five children with diarrhea from June 2018 to September 2018. We conducted financial burden survey among 371 household with diarrhea cases. Prevalence rate of diarrhea was found 50% among under five children. The average out-of-pocket expenditure was NRs 568.62 (US $5.06) per episode for diarrhea treatment. The total average direct cost for diarrheal treatment was NRs 183.58 (US $1.63). The two major cost driver during each episode were loss of wage by parents NRs 360.97 (US $3.21) and medicine costs NRs 114.15 (US $1.01). The Diarrheal prevalence rate in the study area was found higher than the National. The indirect cost of each diarrheal episode is more than three times of the direct cost.

Effects of Western Diet on Giardiasis: A Role for Fatty Acids and Gut Microbiota in the Persistence and Severity of Giardia Infections

AIMSGiardia duodenalis is a protozoan parasite responsible for giardiasis, one of the most common cause of waterborne diseases. Giardia. sp causes epithelial disruptions as well as microbiota alterations. Giardia infections are common in countries with poor sanitation, where the diet is mostly agrarian and high in fiber content. Intriguingly, in such environments, giardiasis has commonly been reported to cause little or no illness. Giardiasis also occurs in developed countries with western/high fat diets, where infections are a common cause of diarrhea. This sutdy investigated the role of diet on the severity and the duration of giardiasis. We hypothesized that western diet may contribute to the persistence of Giardia in the gut. Experiments assessed the role of fatty acids and gut microbiota in pathophysiology.METHODSC57/BL6 mice were fed for two weeks with 5TJN Western diet or 5TJS Low‐Fat (LF) diet prior to infection with Giardia duodenalis GS/M strain (human isolate). The small intestines were collected at day 7 post infection (PI) for histological study and parasite burden. Gut microbiota composition was determined by Illumina Mi‐Seq 16S RNA sequencing. The effect of Oleic and Palmitic acid on Giardia metabolic activity was determined by resazurin assay. Finally, tight junction disruption of small intestinal epithelial cell line SCNB infected with G. duodenalis Assemblage A (NF strain) and Assemblage B (GS/M strain) in the presence of Oleic, Palmitic acid (0.3 mM) or both was determined by immunofluorescence.RESULTSWe observed that Giardia infected C57/BL6 mice that were fed with 5TJN Western diet exhibited a significantly higher trophozoite burden 7 days PI. Giardia infected mice also exhibited more severe mucosal damage (lower villus‐crypt ratio) when fed with Western diet. Fecal microbiota analysis showed that mice fed with Western Diet exhibit a higher abundance of Verrucomicrobia and a lower abundance of Firmicutes than mice fed LF diet. Upon Giardia infection, a decrease of Bacteroidetes and an increase of Firmicutes was observed. Overall, Giardia infection induced an increase of the alpha diversity in Western mice compared to mice given LF diet. Trophozoite metabolic activity was enhanced in the presence of Oleic acid (0.1 mM) and Palmitic acid (0.25mM). In addition, small intestine cell lines infected with G. duodenalis strain NF and GS/M showed a disruption and/or a rearrangement of tight junction proteins such as ZO‐1, Claudin‐1 and 4 when incubated with Oleic and Palmitic acids (0.3 mM).CONCLUSIONThis study gives insight into how diet may influence the outcome of parasitic diseases and intestinal pathophysiology. The findings suggest that a Western Diet may increase the severity of giardiasis by, at least in part, promoting the growth of Giardia through fatty acid supplementation and microbiota modulation. The potential of diet intervention in treatment against parasitic diseases warrants further research.Support or Funding InformationGrant support: NSERCThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Review on the Control of Waterborne Diseases – The Islamic Approach

Introduction: Scarcity of fresh water is currently blighting the population of the least developed countries around the world. According to WHO, waterborne diseases accounts for 4.1% of total disability adjusted life years (DALYs) with a mortality rate of 1.8 million per year. Numerous pathogens and chemicals may be the potential sources of water contamination that leads to waterborne diseases in humans. Some pathogens are only active and express disease whilst within the host. The aim of this article is to identify the cause of water-borne diseases and how to control it from the Islamic perspective. Material and Methods: In this review we had compiled the latest scientific findings related to waterborne diseases and integrated them with Islamic approach of cleanliness. There are many Hadiths of the Prophet (peace be upon him) (PBUH) regarding methods of cleanliness with scientific background to control waterborne diseases. Water pollution may be a natural process, men made, intentional or accidental. More often than not, man are infected after accidently consuming or coming in contact with contaminated water Results: Scientific literature search reveals that individual hygiene and sanitation is the most prominent way to prevent waterborne diseases. In Islam, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) puts a great emphasize on purification in terms of personal cleanliness and made it mandatory to follow rule to remain pure both physically and spiritually. Conclusions: Sunnatic approaches of cleanliness may hinder waterborne disease.

Determination of Willingness to Pay for Improved Water Supply in Selected Areas of Lahore

Water scarcity is an alarming issue in the developing world. Due to population explosion, the supply of water to households is becoming difficult. And as the quality of water supply infrastructure is deteriorating, clean water is getting mixed with sewage and becoming a cause of waterborne diseases. This study was carried out in the city of Lahore, Pakistan, to find out the willingness to pay (WTP) for improved water supply by using Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). This study explores the relationship of WTP with socio-economic factors, i.e. income, accommodation and employment. Moreover, questionnaires were administered to randomly selected 200 respondents. For statistical analysis stepwise linear regression, Pearson correlation and chi square were employed to find out the variables that determine WTP for improved water supply quality. Results showed that income was the variable that most significantly impacted the WTP for improved water supply. The WTP amount was found to be 0.70 USD. People were not generally satisfied with the water supply quality. Unavailability of water for 1–2[Formula: see text]h per day was commonly reported by the respondents. However, more studies should be conducted with a larger sample size to enhance our knowledge about water supply situation in Lahore.

Identification and Characterization of Bacteria Isolated from Pipe-borne Water Samples in Selected Areas of Lagos Using Api kits and RAPD-PCR

Pipe-borne water is a major source of drinking water and contamination of such water source could lead to an epidemic. The aim of this present study is to isolate, identify and characterize microorganisms in pipe-borne water in different locations of Lagos metropolis. Six microorganisms were isolated from water samples collected at five locations. The isolates were subjected to morphological as well as biochemical tests using gram staining and Analytical Profile Index (API) tests respectively. Three primers (S gene, RAPD 1 and RAPD 2) were used for the PCR amplification of DNA samples extracted from the isolates and were identified as bacterial species: Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus alvei, Bacillus mycoides, Pasteurella aerogenes, Pasteurella pneumotropica and Staphylococcus aureus. Gel electrophoresis of the amplified DNA samples generated a total of 128 bands which were subjected to statistical analysis using the NTSYS software (version 2.02j). The results as shown in the UPGMA dendrograms revealed a similarity coefficient of 0.66 among B. polymyxa, B. alvei and B. mycoides as well as a high similarity coefficient of 0.72 between P. pneumotropica and S. aureus. The presence of spore-forming bacteria, B. mycoides B. polymyxa and B. alvei is considered a biohazard as they can survive for long periods while the presence of P. aerogenes, P. pneumotropica and S. aureus, known as opportunistic pathogens is equally hazardous and can be a potential cause of water borne disease. This present study, using RAPD-PCR technique has improved the identification and characterization of microorganisms isolated from pipe-borne water.

Revelations of an overt water contamination

BackgroundContaminated water sources are major cause of water borne diseases of public health importance. Usually, contamination is suspected after an increase in patient load. MethodsTwo health teams investigated the episode. First team conducted sanitary survey, and second team undertook water safety and morbidity survey. On-site testing was carried out from source till consumer end.Investigation was also undertaken to identify factors which masked the situation. Prevention and control measures included super chlorination, provision of alternate drinking water sources, awareness campaign, layout of new water pipeline bypassing place of contamination, repair of sewers, flushing and cleaning of water pipelines, and repeated water sampling and testing. ResultsMultiple sources of drinking water supply were detected. Water samples from consumer end showed 18 coliforms per 100ml. Sewer cross connection with active leakage in water pipeline was found and this was confirmed by earth excavation. Water safety and morbidity survey found majority of households receiving contaminated water supply. This survey found no significant difference among households receiving contaminated water supply and those receiving clean water. Average proportion of household members with episode of loose motions, pain abdomen, vomiting, fever, and eye conditions was significantly more among households receiving contaminated water. ConclusionThe present study documents detailed methodology of investigation and control measures to be instituted on receipt of contaminated water samples. Effective surveillance mechanisms for drinking water supplies such as routine testing of water samples can identify water contamination at an early stage and prevent an impending outbreak.

One-year Surveillance of Human Enteric Viruses in Raw and Treated Wastewaters, Downstream River Waters, and Drinking Waters.

Human enteric viruses are a major cause of waterborne diseases, and can be transmitted by contaminated water of all kinds, including drinking and recreational water. The objectives of the present study were to assess the occurrence of enteric viruses (enterovirus, norovirus, adenovirus, hepatitis A and E virus) in raw and treated wastewaters, in rivers receiving wastewater discharges, and in drinking waters. Wastewater treatment plants' (WWTP) pathogen removal efficiencies by adenovirus quantitative real-time PCR and the presence of infectious enterovirus, by cell culture assays, in treated wastewaters and in surface waters were also evaluated. A total of 90 water samples were collected: raw and treated wastewaters (treated effluents and ultrafiltered water reused for industrial purposes), water from two rivers receiving treated discharges, and drinking water. Nested PCR assays were used for the identification of viral DNA/RNA, followed by direct amplicon sequencing. All raw sewage samples (21/21), 61.9% of treated wastewater samples (13/21), and 25% of ultrafiltered water samples (3/12) were contaminated with at least one viral family. Multiple virus families and genera were frequently detected. Mean positive PCRs per sample decreased significantly from raw to treated sewage and to ultrafiltered waters. Moreover, quantitative adenovirus data showed a reduction in excess of 99% in viral genome copies following wastewater treatment. In surface waters, 78.6% (22/28) of samples tested positive for one or more viruses by molecular methods, but enterovirus-specific infectivity assays did not reveal infectious particles in these samples. All drinking water samples tested negative for all viruses, demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment in removing viral pathogens from drinking water. Integrated strategies to manage water from all sources are crucial to ensure water quality.