Caudal Ligament Research Articles

РАЗРАБОТКА АЛГОРИТМА ОЦЕНКИ ФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКОЙ УПИТАННОСТИ МОЛОЧНЫХ КОРОВ

Cow’s body condition scoring (BCS) based on neural network algorithms is necessary to monitor the health and productivity of the animals. To develop an algorithm for assessing the physiological fatness of dairy cows according to the parameters of the fermur heads, the sacrum and the hunger hollow, the authors studied eighty animals on a farm of the state unitary enterprise “Grigorievskoe”, which were divided into fatness groups (from 1 to 5). The studies were carried out in November 2021 during the morning milking. Data were collected using a 3D ToF camera O3D303. Previously, the installation of a three-dimensional camera on the farm was sim ulated, and an algorithm was developed that takes into account the cow height and the distance from the highest point of the spine to the three-dimensional camera. An algorithm for assessing the physiological fatness of dairy cows (BCS) has been developed to take into account the condition of the fermur heads, the sacrum, the hunger hollow, which determines the highest point of the withers, the proportions between the body length and width, as well as the depth of the hunger hollows and the severity of the caudal ligament. Software has been developed to register the unique number of a cow and determine the BCS, as well as show the dynamics of changes in the animal’s fatness. Data were processed in accordance with the developed algorithm. The image was processed using the regression method. Comparison results of the BCS of cows, obtained according to the developed algorithm, and the experts’ assessment showed that the algorithm error in the fatness range of 2…4 points averaged 10%. When determining the BCS of cows with borderline and limit fatness state (1 and 5 points), the measurement error by the proposed algorithm increased to 25%. Based on the results obtained, the authors recommend pre-setting a neural network for further research; determine the correction factor for fatness points 1 and 5; fi nalize the software, develop customized software and an automatic system for body condition scoring, and conduct tests.

БЕСКОНТАКТНАЯ ОЦЕНКА УПИТАННОСТИ МОЛОЧНЫХ КОРОВ С ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕМ TOF-ТЕХНОЛОГИИ

The paper presents the results of applying the body condition score (BCS) least squares algorithm used to assess the body condition of dairy cows with a 3D ToF camera. The authors propose a method for collecting field data on the body condition of dairy cows in industrial milk production using a 3D ToF camera. The camera was installed at a height of 2200 mm from the floor at an angle of 5° towards the sacrum. Four areas of the body of 34 dairy cows were examined: the ischial tuberosities, the roundness of the maclugs, the sacral ligament, and the caudal ligament. Data were collected during milking. 136 images were processed. Digital data were processed in three types of images: in the RGB-D color spectrum, Point Cloud and binary. The assessment took into account five groups of fatness: 1 - lean; 2 - thin; 3 - well-fed; 4 - very well-fed; 5 - obese dairy cow. The resulting images were analyzed using software developed in the Matlab environment. The results of the algorithm were compared with the expert assessment of four specialists. According to the results of the BCS assessment of the algorithm, the fatness scores of groups 1 and 5 coincided with the opinion of experts with a probability of 73 and 67%, in groups 2, 3, 4 the coincidence was 61, 52 and 55%, respectively. The authors suppose that the inaccuracy in determining the fatness of groups 2, 3 and 4 is associated with their implicit differences. It is concluded that of all the BCS groups, the system more accurately determines the fatness of cows of groups 1 and 5, as well as from three image options (Point cloud 3D, RGB-D, binary) RGB-D most accurately determined the fatness of cows.

Cross-anatomical, radiographic and computed tomographic study of the stifle joint of donkeys (Equus africanus asinus).

The present investigation was conducted to provide a full anatomical description of the stifle joint of donkeys using 3D computed tomography imaging technique, in addition to the classic anatomical methods, such as radiography and cross-anatomical sectioning. The radiography and CT imaging of stifle joint were interpreted in comparison with cross-sectional anatomical sections. Volume-rendering reconstruction techniques (3D-CT) were used to describe the anatomical structure of stifle joint. The used twelve adult healthy donkeys were free from any musculoskeletal disorders. Four donkeys were used for the gross anatomical observations, four for CT and radiography and two live animals for determination the site of injections. The results of this study revealed that the complex stifle joint was formed from three joints: femorotibial, femoropatellar and proximal tibiofibular. The articular surfaces were described for each joint, and the synovial layer of the articular capsule formed three main joint sacs: femoropatellar, medial femorotibial and lateral femorotibial sacs. The ligaments of stifle joint were recorded, and meniscal ligaments included cranial and caudal ligaments of medial and lateral menisci and meniscofemoral ligament of lateral meniscus. The cruciate ligaments were also described and they included the cranial and caudal cruciate ligaments, while the patellar ligament included the medial, middle and lateral patellar ligaments. The arterial supply and the site of injection of the stifle joint were described. In conclusion, the 3D reconstruction CT provided well-defined baseline reference image for the stifle joint of donkeys for anatomist, radiologist, surgeons and researchers.

Ligamental compartments and their relation to the passing spinal nerves are detectable with MRI inside the lumbar neural foramina.

Intraforaminal ligaments (IFL) in lumbar neural foramina (NF) and their relation to the lumbar spinal nerves (SN) are addressed. Giemsa- and PAS-stained plastinated body slices of 15 lumbar spines were made and compared to MRI and CT data acquired of the same fresh specimens. We dissected one fixed lumbar spine to discuss our results with previous literature. Macroscopic pathophysiological changes and operational interventions at these lumbar spines were excluded. In the NF, thin medial IFL touch the SN. As a second compartment, intermedial vertical IFL are seen. A third lateral horizontal compartment of IFL is formed by thick cranial and caudal ligaments. Ligaments of the second and third compartments have no direct contact with the SN. From medial to lateral, the IFL thicken. All compartments are 3D reconstructed. If compartments of the IFL have no direct contact with the SN seen in the slices, a connection was noticed after dissection. Manual dissection seems to be inappropriate for a detailed study of the IFL. The lateral and intermedial compartments being free of the SN may transmit power and protect the SN, while the thin medial IFL may lead the SN passing the NF under physiological conditions. We conclude from the close topographical relation that the IFL may be relevant in foraminal stenosis. Any herniation in the NF presses IFL to the SN. Therefore, we think the IFL themselves could cause neurogenic claudication in case of their non-physiological turnover. Visualisation of IFL seems to be possible by using MRI. These slides can be retrieved under Electronic Supplementary Material.

Detection of maturity and ligament injury using magic angle directional imaging.

To investigate whether magnetic field-related anisotropies of collagen may be correlated with postmortem findings in animal models. Optimized scan planning and new MRI data-processing methods were proposed and analyzed using Monte Carlo simulations. Six caprine and 10 canine knees were scanned at various orientations to the main magnetic field. Image intensities in segmented voxels were used to compute the orientation vectors of the collagen fibers. Vector field and tractography plots were computed. The Alignment Index was defined as a measure of orientation distribution. The knees were subsequently assessed by a specialist orthopedic veterinarian, who gave a pathological diagnosis after having dissected and photographed the joints. Using 50% less scans than reported previously can lead to robust calculation of fiber orientations in the presence of noise, with much higher accuracy. The 6 caprine knees were found to range from very immature (< 3 months) to very mature (> 3 years). Mature specimens exhibited significantly more aligned collagen fibers in their patella tendons compared with the immature ones. In 2 of the 10 canine knees scanned, partial cranial caudal ligament tears were identified from MRI and subsequently confirmed with encouragingly high consistency of tractography, Alignment Index, and dissection results. This method can be used to detect injury such as partial ligament tears, and to visualize maturity-related changes in the collagen structure of tendons. It can provide the basis for new, noninvasive diagnostic tools in combination with new scanner configurations that allow less-restricted field orientations.

Comparative Morphological Studies of the Stifle Menisci in Donkeys, Goats and Dogs

AbstractThe present work aims to provide more anatomical information on the stifle joint of the investigated species using computed tomography with gross anatomical cross-sections. The current work analyzed the stifle joint of the pelvic limbs of 12 adult donkeys, goats and dogs of both genders. The medial condyle of the femur was larger than the lateral one in the donkey, while it was smaller and lower than the lateral one in the goat and in the dog. The unsuitable femoral and tibial condyles were adapted by the presence of menisci. In the donkey, the medial meniscus was crescentic in shape, but it was semicircular in the goat, while in the dog, the medial and lateral menisci were C-shaped. In the donkey, the medial meniscus was larger than the lateral one, but in the goat and in the dog, the lateral meniscus was the largest, and more concave and thicker. The lateral meniscus was semicircular in the donkey, but it was shaped like an elongated kidney in the goat. In the goat and in the dog, the central border of two menisci was thin, concave and notched centrally. The meniscal ligaments included cranial and caudal ligaments of the medial and lateral menisci, and meniscofemoral ligament of the lateral meniscus. In the dog, the cranial ligament of the medial meniscus was absent, and the medial meniscus had no bony attachment to the tibia but it attached to the transverse intermeniscal ligament, which connected the cranial horn of the medial meniscus with the cranial ligament of the lateral meniscus. The meniscofemoral ligament connected the caudal pole of the lateral meniscus with the intercondyloid fossa of the femur.

Ligamental compartments and their relation to the passing spinal nerves are detectable with MRI inside the lumbar neural foramina

Intraforaminal ligaments (IFL) in lumbar neural foramina (NF) and their relation to the lumbar spinal nerves (SN) are addressed. Giemsa- and PAS-stained plastinated body slices of 15 lumbar spines were made and compared to MRI and CT data acquired of the same fresh specimens. We dissected one fixed lumbar spine to discuss our results with previous literature. Macroscopic pathophysiological changes and operational interventions at these lumbar spines were excluded. In the NF, thin medial IFL touch the SN. As a second compartment, intermedial vertical IFL are seen. A third lateral horizontal compartment of IFL is formed by thick cranial and caudal ligaments. Ligaments of the second and third compartments have no direct contact with the SN. From medial to lateral, the IFL thicken. All compartments are 3D reconstructed. If compartments of the IFL have no direct contact with the SN seen in the slices, a connection was noticed after dissection. Manual dissection seems to be inappropriate for a detailed study of the IFL. The lateral and intermedial compartments being free of the SN may transmit power and protect the SN, while the thin medial IFL may lead the SN passing the NF under physiological conditions. We conclude from the close topographical relation that the IFL may be relevant in foraminal stenosis. Any herniation in the NF presses IFL to the SN. Therefore, we think the IFL themselves could cause neurogenic claudication in case of their non-physiological turnover. Visualisation of IFL seems to be possible by using MRI. These slides can be retrieved under Electronic Supplementary Material.

Morphometric studies on the passive role of menisci in upward fixation of the patella in buffalo and cattle

The present study showed that the medial and lateral compartments of the femorotibial joint have an intervening meniscus located between the femur and tibia. The lateral meniscus is semicircular and covers a larger portion of the tibial condyle than the medial meniscus. The lateral meniscus has cranial and caudal meniscal ligaments anchoring it to the tibia. The present investigation shows that the dimensions of the meniscal ligaments of buffalo and cattle are almost the same except for the caudal ligament of lateral meniscus and the meniscofemoral ligament. The caudal ligament of lateral meniscus is longer in buffalo than in cattle. Therefore, the femur moves more cranially than normal to straighten the joint. The meniscofemoral ligament is thicker in cattle (6.55±0.04 mm) than in buffalo (3.85±0.05 mm). Therefore, it helps to stabilize the movement of the menisci. Furthermore, the presence of the transverse genual ligament which fixes the two menisci cranially increases stability and prevents a more forward movement of the femur.

Morphometric studies on the passive role of menisci in upward fixation of the patella in buffalo and cattle

The present study showed that the medial and lateral compartments of the femorotibial joint have an intervening meniscus located between the femur and tibia. The lateral meniscus is semicircular and covers a larger portion of the tibial condyle than the medial meniscus. The lateral meniscus has cranial and caudal meniscal ligaments anchoring it to the tibia. The present investigation shows that the dimensions of the meniscal ligaments of buffalo and cattle are almost the same except for the caudal ligament of lateral meniscus and the meniscofemoral ligament. The caudal ligament of lateral meniscus is longer in buffalo than in cattle. Therefore, the femur moves more cranially than normal to straighten the joint. The meniscofemoral ligament is thicker in cattle (6.55±0.04 mm) than in buffalo (3.85±0.05 mm). Therefore, it helps to stabilize the movement of the menisci. Furthermore, the presence of the transverse genual ligament which fixes the two menisci cranially increases stability and prevents a more forward movement of the femur.

The female gubernaculum: role in the embryology and development of the genital tract and in the possible genesis of malformations

The female gubernaculum is an embryonic structure that gives rise to the uterine round ligament and seems to be important in Müllerian development. In the absence of androgens and anti-Müllerian hormone, the paramesonephric or Müllerian ducts complete their invagination and development, interfering with the connection of the tissue column that begins at the inguinal cone (the gubernaculum) and targets the mesonephric duct and caudal ligament of the gonad. The gubernaculum then grows over the Müllerian ducts, incorporating its muscular fibres. Outside and above this point, the Müllerian ducts give rise to the Fallopian tubes, whereas medially to the point of insertion of the gubernaculum, the Müllerian ducts develop into the normal uterus, the adequate formation of which is also induced by the mesonephric ducts. Diverse human anatomical and physiological characteristics such as the simplex uterus, as well as pathological conditions and certain female genital malformations, could be related to gubernaculum dysfunction.The main conclusions in this article are: (1) The female gubernaculum is the origin of the uterine round ligament but probably not of the uteroovarian ligament. Gubernacula are composed of muscular fibres that probably derive from the abdominal wall and that, when fixed and fused with the Müllerian ducts, allow or induce, together with the mesonephric ducts, the adequate development and formation of the uterus. (2) The female gubernaculum seems to be responsible for many of the specific human characteristics of Müllerian development, including the uterus simplex, the anteflexion and low intra-abdominal position of the uterus, and the disposition of uterine muscular fibres. (3) The female gubernaculum seems to be related to pathologies arising from the round ligaments and inguinal hernia. Likewise, certain uterine malformations (e.g., didelphys uterus, Rokitansky syndrome) and accessory and cavitated uterine masses might be related to gubernaculum dysfunction.

Anatomy of the equine temporomandibular joint: study by gross dissection, vascular injection and section

The minute anatomy of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in horses is poorly documented in the literature. To examine in detail the anatomy of the normal equine TMJ and the relationship of the joint to adjacent structures. The anatomy of the TMJ was examined in 12 equidae using dissections, synovial and vascular injections and frozen and plastinated sections. Relevant structures were photographed. Rostral and caudal compartments were identified in the dorsal and ventral synovial pouches of the TMJ. Lateral and caudal ligaments were identified and attachments of the masticatory muscles over the TMJ were documented. Direct relationships between the TMJ and components of the ear were found, and the vascular supply described. This joint is related to some components of the ear as in man, and has its own peripheral vascular supply. A knowledge of the detailed anatomy of the equine TMJ is a prerequisite to interpreting the imaging techniques, and will enable improved diagnosis of TMJ pathologies.

A cranial intercondylar arthroscopic approach to the caudal medial femorotibial joint of the horse

Current noninvasive techniques for imaging the soft tissue structures of the stifle have limitations. Arthroscopy is commonly used for the investigation and treatment of stifle pain. Cranial and caudal arthroscopic approaches to the femorotibial joints are used. However, complete examination of the axial aspect of the medial femorotibial joint (MFTJ) is not possible currently. To develop a cranial approach to the caudal pouch of the MFTJ and to assess whether it would allow a more complete examination of the compartment and facilitate the caudomedial approach. The regional anatomy was reviewed and the technique developed on cadavers. A series of nonrecovery surgeries were performed to evaluate the procedure, which was then used in 7 clinical cases. Advantages compared to existing techniques and complications encountered were recorded. Successful entry into the caudal pouch of the MFTJ was achieved in 20 of 22 cadaver legs, 8 of 8 joints of nonrecovery surgery horses and 6 of 7 clinical cases operated. The caudal ligament of the medial meniscus could be visualised, along with other axial structures of the caudal joint pouch. The technique was used to facilitate a caudomedial approach and allowed better triangulation within the joint space. Complications were minor and included puncture of the caudal joint capsule and scoring of the axial medial femoral condyle. It is possible to access the caudal pouch of the MFTJ arthroscopically using a cranial intercondylar approach. The technique has advantages when compared to existing techniques and is associated with few significant complications. A cranial approach to the caudal pouch of the MFTJ could complement existing techniques and be useful clinically.

The development of the caudal ligaments of the mesonephros and of the gonads: a contribution to the development of the human gubernaculum (Hunteri).

The formation of the two caudal mesonephric folds is described. The plica uropelvina becomes the plica urogenitalis as soon as the paramesonephric (Müllerian) duct grows, and the plica inguinalis runs over the ridge of the umbilical artery to the ventral abdominal wall. Within the plica inguinalis the inguinal or caudal mesonephric ligament is formed directly subjacent to the coelomic epithelium. It interacts intensively with the mesenchyme sheath of the paramesonephric (Müllerian) duct in stage 21. It is separated by loose mesenchyme from the subjacent mesonephros and mesonephric (Wolffian) duct which therefore it does not pass beneath. In stage 23, and during the early fetal period, the caudal gonadal ligament is formed. It arises from the caudal pole of the gonads and proliferates in the space between the two genital ducts. Only the duct not destined to disappear associates with it. Therefore, in males the gubernaculum consists of the inguinal ligament of the mesonephros only. Its significance for the descent of the testis is discussed. In females the inguinal and the caudal gonadal ligaments fuse into a single strand and together form the gubernaculum.

Androgen-induced prevention of the outgrowth of cranial gonadal suspensory ligaments in fetal rats.

Normal and disturbed testicular descent is frequently approached exclusively through a consideration of the caudal testicular suspensory apparatus. This is surprising, because embryonal gonads develop with both cranial and caudal suspensory ligaments, and the sexes differ with respect to the persistence and development of both the cranial and the caudal ligaments. The current study examined the possible role of fetal testicular androgens in male-specific failure of the development of the cranial gonadal suspensory apparatus in rats. Normal male fetuses were studied, as well as fetuses exposed to the anti-androgen flutamide from day 10 after conception. Females were given daily injections of methyl-testosterone alone or in combination with the anti-androgen cyproterone acetate from day 15 after conception, and were studied on day 22. The cranial ligaments remained of minor extension in normal males but developed considerably in females. They developed in female fashion in males exposed to flutamide, and persisted throughout postnatal life. Cranial ligaments did not develop in females that had been exposed to methyl-testosterone. Simultaneous treatment with a large dose of cyproterone acetate effectively counteracted this effect. Fetal testicular testosterone thus appears to play a key role in the prevention of the outgrowth of the cranial gonadal/genital ligament in rats. The supposed function of this suspensory apparatus makes it likely that its persistence in males, as the consequence of inappropriate androgen action during fetal life, facilitates disturbance of testicular descent. This finding may contribute to understanding developmental disorders underlying disturbed testis descent in humans.