Catha Edulis Forsk Research Articles

The Potential Health Risks of Catha edulis Forsk (Khat) Consumption on Some Vital Organs

Abstract Introduction/Objective Introduction: Catha edulis Forsk (Khat) leaves are widely chewed by adults in the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa for their mild stimulating properties. Objectives To investigate the impact of an aqueous extract of Catha edulis Forsk leaves on the proper functioning of vital organs. Methods/Case Report Methods: Materials and methods: Twenty-five female albino rats were divided into two groups: a control group and a treated group which received a daily gavage of 1 ml of aqueous Khat extract with a concentration of 700 mg/kg body weight for four weeks. The effects of this treatment on selected organs, including the brain, hippocampus, heart, and ovaries, were assessed using various measurements and analyses. Results (if a Case Study enter NA) Results: Results: The antioxidant evaluation showed a significant increase in MDA levels in the khat group and a significant decrease in GSH, SOD, and CAT levels compared to the control group. There was a significant decrease in IL-4 and a significant increase in TNF-α and TGF-β1 compared to the control group. In contrast, the cardiac enzymes; Troponin, CK, CPK, and GOT showed a significant increase compared to the control group. The results of the hormonal assay indicated a significant increase in LH, FSH, and testosterone levels, along with a significant decrease in estrogen in the khat group compared to the control group. Furthermore, the histological investigations revealed significant changes in tissue architecture in the studied organs. In the heart, the treated group exhibited an intact, thick pericardium, along with markedly apoptotic cardiac muscle fibers and others with pyknotic nuclei and mildly congested blood vessels and capillaries. The examination of brain tissues in the treated group showed thick meninges with mild inflammatory infiltrate, marked astrogliosis with degenerated neurons in the cerebral cortex, inflammatory infiltrate with abscess formation and mildly congested blood vessels and eosinophilic plaque-like area in the deep cortex, and scattered degenerated neurons and some neurons with nuclear vacuoles and average glial cells in the white matter. In the ovaries, sections showed primary, secondary, and antral follicles, scattered cystically dilated follicles with atrophied lining, and multiple corpora lutea in the edematous stroma with scattered apoptotic stromal cells. Conclusion Based on these findings, long-term use of khat as a chewing material may harm vital organs.

The analysis of the essential metal contents in khat (Catha edulis Forsk) from Meru County, Kenya

BackgroundChemical composition of plants has attracted considerable interest in recent years with considerable research tailored into determining metal contents in food substances. Particularly, essential elements which are necessary for normal human body functioning and are strongly recommended in optimal proportions for better health. This study determined the levels of essential elements; calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K) and manganese (Mn) in eleven khat (Catha edulis Forsk) samples collected from Meru County. Methodology1.0 g of dry ground khat samples were wet-digested in a solvent mixture of 10 mL of HCl, HNO3 and 20 vol of H2O2 for 3 h at variable temperature of 50–90 °C and later reconstituted in 25 mL 0.05 molL−1 HCl before analysis. The samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP AES) after acid digestion whereas Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to investigate elemental characteristics and determine the sources of essential metals in khat. In addition, Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) was used to evaluate the relationships between the essential metals. ResultsSpinach leaves certified reference material (CRM 1750a) was analyzed and the percentage recoveries (%) of 98.4 and 101.7 determined showing that the digestion method employed in this work had adequate accuracy. The validated method was employed for the analysis of all the khat samples. The analyzed metal concentration ranges (mg100g−1) in fresh-weight basis per day of five metals were 160.9–267.3, 44.6–81.7, 2.0–3.0, 237.6–393.6, and 220.3 -349.0 for Ca, Mg, Mn, K, and Na, respectively. Both HCA and PCA results showed that these elements could be linked to natural soils and anthropogenic sources. PCC reported significant correlations between Na and K indicating they may have been derived from the same source. The daily metal intakes were below the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits implying no associated health risks for khat users. ConclusionBased on the findings of this study, the consumption of khat from regions of Meru County may be a potential source for essential elements required for human biological processes.

Characterization of briquettes derived from water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and khat (Catha edulis Forsk) wastes around Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia

The objective of this research was to characterize briquettes produced from khat and water hyacinth as a substitute for traditional energy sources. Khat and water hyacinth samples were collected from Bahir Dar city and Lake Tana, Ethiopia. The collected samples were cleansed, chopped and sun dried to attain a moisture content of <15%. Sun-dried water hyacinth and khat samples were carbonized in an oxygen-scarce condition. The carbonized resources were subsequently ground into small particles, combined with a binder, and converted into briquettes using a briquette machine and collected for laboratory analysis. It was observed that carbonization efficiency ranged from 22.67 to 38%. The findings showed that khat alone produced briquettes with the best combustion properties, followed by khat and water hyacinth mixtures at 75:25 and 50:50 ratios. The briquettes prepared from 100% water hyacinth and 25:75 blend of khat & water hyacinth had the best emission characteristics. The study also showed that water hyacinth briquettes had the highest durability index and water resistance, whereas khat briquettes had the highest compressed density, relaxation density, and relaxation ratio. Therefore, this study shows that briquettes produced from water hyacinth and khat wastes can be used as an alternative energy source.

Levels and Health Risk Assessments of Heavy Metals in Khat and Its Support Soil in Algesachi, Ilu Ababor, Ethiopia.

Khat (Catha edulis Forsk) is a stimulant plant grown in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Heavy metal pollution has been a global concern due to its acute and chronic health effects and the major route of exposure is the consumption of contaminated foods. In this study, the determination and health risk assessment of heavy metals (Mn, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd, and Pb) in khat and its support soil samples was carried out. Khat and its support soil were analyzed for the levels of 7 toxic heavy metals by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Samples were randomly collected from 3 districts of khat farming kebeles and digested using mixture of strong acids. The concentrations (mg/kg) of analytes in soil and khat samples were: Cu (6.78-35.80); Zn (24.30-199.02); Mn (7.59-1855.40); Ni (6.37-64.80); Cr (0.82-169.20); Cd (14.2-38.8), and Pb (ND). Among the analyzed heavy metals in soil, Mn was with the highest concentration, followed by Zn, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Cd while that of Zn was the maximum followed by Cu, Mn, and Cr in khat. The levels of Zn, Cr, and Cd in soil samples from all study sites and detected concentrations of Cr in khat samples exceeded the recommended FAO/WHO levels. The hazard index (HI) of metals in khat from study areas was less than 1 indicating a less likelihood of non-carcinogenic toxicological health effects. However, the presence of these toxic chemicals in soil and khat indicates product contamination and needs extensive further investigation involving other heavy metals.

Gender Mainstreaming in Miraa Farming in the Eastern Highlands of Kenya

Miraa (Catha edulis forsk) farming is a major income earner in Kenya, but until recently, it was not scheduled as a priority crop in the country. Consequently, no gender research to identify men and women issues with the purpose of designing gender-responsive solutions for increased productivity has ever been conducted on the crop value chain. The main objective of the study was to examine gender issues in miraa production and marketing activities in Kenya. Data were collected using multiple methods. These included a formal survey that covered 962 households, key informants’ interviews, focused group discussions and a literature review. The household data were analyzed through descriptive statistics using SPSS Version 20 software. The Harvard theoretical framework was used to structure the analysis. The main findings indicate that women have less access to production resources such as land and extension services than men. Moreover, men performed almost all crop activities. Men also dominated all crop decisions. The study recommends that research scientists need to design gender-responsive technologies, innovations and management practices that are tailor made to meet men’s needs and concerns. This is because the crop appears to belong to men with less women’s operational and financial control.

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil of Catha edulis Forsk from Djibouti and Its Toxicological Investigations In Vivo and In Vitro

This work aimed to evaluate the chemical composition of essential oils from Catha edulis Forsk collected in the Day Forest of the Republic of Djibouti. Additionally, in vivo toxicity studies, biochemical profiling, and hematological tests were conducted to determine the biological activity of the investigated essential oils. Finally, in vitro tests were performed to investigate the antibacterial activity of the essential oils. The essential oils were obtained at yields of 0.75%. Chromatographic analysis identified 39 compounds, of which cathinone (81.4%) and cathine (10.55%) were determined as the two major components, representing 91.95% of the total composition. Catha edulis essential oil had a rat LD50 of 2500 mg/kg, indicating very low toxicity. Chronic exposure studies revealed that use of the essential oil in rats resulted in persistent stimulant action at dosages of 100 and 200 mg/kg, whereas the weight gain of control rats was faster than that of the essential oil-treated rats. Hematological parameters showed a significant increase in red blood cell counts, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelets in treated rats, which could indicate blood hyperviscosity that may increase the risk of blood clots and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, the investigated essential oil exhibited antimicrobial activity against several bacterial strains.

GC/EI-MS and UV-Vis analysis of pesticide residues in cultivated Catha edulis Forsk (Khat) from selected farms in Meru County, Kenya

In this study, an analysis of pesticide residues was performed using a gas chromatography/ electron impact mass spectrometer (GC/EI-MS) to qualitatively assess and characterize pesticide residues in khat leaves sampled from selected agricultural farms in Meru County, Kenya. A solid-phase microextraction (SPME) procedure followed by GC/EI-MS analysis led to the detection and identification of six pesticide compounds from the sample-ion chromatograms. They include cypermethrin, acephate, cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, chlorpyrifos, and chlorfenvinphos. The prevalence rate of pesticide contamination was determined to be 54.5% of the sample size. Of the identified pesticide residues, 50% were compounds based on pyrethroids and the other 50% were based on organophosphate. Four of the six identified pesticides were chlorinated compounds. A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe UV-vis double beam spectrophotometric technique based on copper (II) chelation reactions leading to colored copper pesticide complexes was developed, validated, and applied to quantify and compare the levels of selected pesticide compounds found in the khat samples. UV-vis wavelength-scan measurements performed on pesticide compounds chelated with copper (II) ions revealed maximum absorption of Cu-cypermethrin and Cu-acephate at 321 and 207 nm, respectively. The standards calibration curves developed from the UV-Vis quantitation technique showed excellent linearity in the concentration range of 0.5-10.0 µg/L (R2 = 0.99) for both cypermethrin and acephate standards. The estimated limits of quantification (LOQ) were 0.25-0.26 µg/L, respectively. The UV-Vis quantitation results from the selected samples (in which residues were confirmed to be present) revealed that acephate (an organophosphate residue) occurred at higher concentration levels (range 2.897-7.978 µg/L) than cypermethrin (2.145 µg/L). For the pesticides quantitatively analysed in the selected samples, the levels were below the maximum residue limit (MRL). The hazard quotients (HQ) were in the range of between 0.247-0.797.

Assessment of chromium contamination in the soil and khat leaves (Catha edulis Forsk) and its health risks located in the vicinity of tannery industries; A case study in Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia

Industrial effluents containing trace metals can contaminate water, soil and plants, as well as can cause serious human health impacts. The aim of this study was to assess the concentration of chromium in the soil and khat leaves using spectroscopic methods and to evaluate its potential human health risk on the consumers. The average concentrations of total chromium in the soil samples ranged from 71.01 ± 12.05 to 317.55 ± 23.14 mg kg−1. These values were greater than the control (7.6 ± 0.47 mg kg−1). The average concentrations of total Cr in the khat leaves ranged of 6.5 ± 1.76 to 30.01 ± 2.91 (mg kg−1). These values were higher than the maximum permissible Limits in vegetables 2.3 mg kg−1. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of an adult man weighing 70 kg and consuming on average 100 g of khat leaves per day was found in the range of 0.200–0.454 mg kg−1 body weight day−1. The target hazard quotient (THQ) of Cr from khat leaves consumption was found in the range of 0.001–0.076, which were <1, indicating no potential non-carcinogenic harmful health risk to the consumers in the society. Despite this, the regional EPA must pay close attention to controlling the use of irrigation water contaminated with tannery effluents in order to safeguard khat consumers. Furthermore, consumers must be aware of the health risks and refrain from consuming khat leaves cultivated in the study areas.

Impact of Khat (Catha Edulis Forsk), During Chewing Session, on Serum RBG Level in T2DM Patients Treated with Metformin

Background: Despite its detrimental effects on health, chewing khat appears to be becoming more commonplace globally as a daily habit, particularly in the nations where it originated. As a result, it is very possible that khat users will take drugs while they chew the drug. That is high among them, increasing the likelihood of harmful khat-drug interactions. In these situations, it is critical to assess the impact of simultaneous khat and clinical medication delivery.Objective: As a preliminary study to evaluate the effect of khat (Catha edulis Forsk) chewing on serum Random Blood Sugar (RBG) level in Type 2 Diabetic Mellitus (T2DM) patients treated with metformin.Material and Method: Seventy-six male participants between the ages of 25 and 70 were included in the trial, 38 of them were already metformin-treated T2DM patients with a prior diagnosis. The remaining 38 people had no family history of diabetes, were healthy, and were not diabetic. Whether the individuals in the aforementioned two groups regularly chewed khat or not was used as a supplementary criterion for division. Using a drop of blood taken from each patient, a calibrated glucometer was used to take three readings of RBG levels.Results: The findings showed that healthy persons (non-khat chewers) had RBG levels at 4 hours after lunch that were significantly different from their corresponding values at 2 hours earlier. Using an independent sample t-test to compare the RBG levels of healthy khat chewers to healthy non-khat chewers, it was discovered that khat chewers had significantly higher RBG levels 3 and 4 hours after lunch (P = 0.042 and 0.000, respectively). RBG levels at 4 h after lunch (2 h after khat chewing) were significantly lower by -54.36 when compared to the level at 2 h after lunch of the same group of diabetic khat chewers taking metformin, whereas levels at 3 h after launch (1 h after khat chewing) were not statistically different.Conclusion: When khat was consumed, healthy volunteers' serum RBG levels went up, whereas diabetic patients receiving metformin saw no change in their RBG levels.

Protein-Ligand Identification and In Vitro Inhibitory Effects of Cathine on 11 Major Human Drug Metabolizing Cytochrome P450s.

Cathine is the stable form of cathinone, the major active compound found in khat (Catha edulis Forsk) plant. Khat was found to inhibit major phase I drug metabolizing cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme activities in vitro and in vivo. With the upsurge of khat consumption and the potential use of cathine to combat obesity, efforts should be channelled into understanding potential cathine-drug interactions, which have been rather limited. The present study aimed to assess CYPs activity and inhibition by cathine in a high-throughput in vitro fluorescence-based enzyme assay and molecular docking analysis to identify how cathine interacts within various CYPs’ active sites. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of cathine determined for CYP2A6 and CYP3A4 were 80 and 90 μM, while CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP2J2 and CYP3A5 showed no significant inhibition. Furthermore, in Ki analysis, the Lineweaver-Burk plots depicted non-competitive mixed inhibition of cathine on both CYP2A6 and CYP3A4 with Ki value of 63 and 100 μM, respectively. Cathine showed negligible time-dependent inhibition on CYPs. Further, molecular docking studies showed that cathine was bound to CYP2A6 via hydrophobic, hydrogen and π-stacking interactions and formed hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds with active site residues in CYP3A4. Both molecular docking prediction and in vitro outcome are in agreement, granting more detailed insights for predicting CYPs metabolism besides the possible cathine-drug interactions. Cathine-drug interactions may occur with concomitant consumption of khat or cathine-containing products with medications metabolized by CYP2A6 and CYP3A4.

Effects of Catha Edulis Forsk on spatial learning, memory and correlation with serum electrolytes in wild-type male white albino rats.

The burdens of psychostimulant use disorders are becoming a worldwide problem. One of the psychostimulants widely consumed in Ethiopia and East African countries is Catha edulis Forsk (khat). However, no studies have been conducted on the cognitive effects of khat and its correlation with serum electrolytes. The present study was aimed to evaluate the effects of khat on spatial learning and memory and their correlation with serum electrolytes. Diethyl ether and chloroform (3:1v/v ratio) were solvents used to obtain the crude khat extract in this study. T80W was used to prepare the khat juice, fresh khat leave extract. The rats were received crude khat extract subchronically (KESC) (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg b.w), khat juice (KHJ 2.5 mL/kg), 2% tween 80 in distilled water (T80W- v/v, vehicle) and khat extract subacutely (KESA) (300 mg/kg). For subchronic treatment, each rat was administered for twelve weeks before Morris water maze experiment has been started, while it was administered for a week for acute treatment. Spatial learning and memory were measured using the Morris water maze model and serum sodium, calcium, potassium, and chloride were evaluated using Cobas 6000. Spatial learning was improved with trials across the groups, while average escape latency (s) of rats received KESC 200 mg/kg (p<0.001), KESC 300 mg/kg (p<0.01) and KHJ 2.5 mL/kg (p<0.05) was significantly greater than rats that received vehicle. There was no significant difference in the latency between rats that received KESA 300mg/kg and vehicle (p>0.05). Thigmotaxis was significantly higher in rats that received all doses of khat extract (p<0.001). The time spent in the target quadrant in rats that received KESC 300 mg/kg was significantly reduced (p<0.05). Serum calcium level was inversely correlated with the escape latency (R = -0.417, p<0.05) in rats that received khat. Khat extract and juice administered subchronically, but not subacutely, impaired learning and memory and was associated with serum calcium reduction. The neuronal basis for such alteration should be investigated.

In vitro and In silico studies of interactions of cathinone with human recombinant cytochrome P450 CYP(1A2), CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C19, CYP2E1, CYP2J2, and CYP3A5

Cathinone is the psychostimulatory major active ingredient of khat (Catha edulis Forsk) and are often co-abused with alcohols and polydrugs. With the increased consumption of khat and cathinones on a global scale, efforts should be channelled into understanding and minimising the excruciating effects of possible khat-drug interactions. This study aimed to determine the in vitro inhibitory effects of cathinone on CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C19, CYP2E1, CYP2J2 and CYP3A5 and the in silico identification of their type of interactions and residues involved. The activities of CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C19, CYP2E1, CYP2J2 and CYP3A5 were examined by fluorescence based assays using recombinant cDNA-expressed human CYPs in Vivid® P450 screening kits. Cathinone reversibly inhibited CYP1A2, CYP2A6 and CYP3A5 via competitive, uncompetitive and noncompetitive modes with inhibition constant (Ki) values of 57.12, 13.75 and 23.57 µM respectively. Cathinone showed negligible inhibitory effects on CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C19, CYP2E1 and CYP2J2. Cathinone showed negligible time dependent inhibition on all 8 CYPs. Docking studies was performed on cathinone with CYP1A2, CYP2A6 and CYP3A5 following their inhibition in vitro. Cathinone is bound to a few key amino acid residues in the active sites while π-π interactions are formed in aromatic clusters of CYP1A2 and CYP3A5. These findings offer valuable reference for the use of cathinones and khat when combined with therapeutic drugs that are metabolised by CYP enzymes especially patients on medications metabolised by CYP1A2, CYP2A6 and CYP3A5.

Designing Public Health Policy to Curb Health and Economic Impact of Khat Chewing

Introduction and Background: Khat (Catha edulis Forsk) known for long period as an indigenous plant to Ethiopia, has many mixed effects and impact. Some consider it as a good means to socialize. Others consider it as a good source of income. Nowadays, as a result of its effect on health, public health concern is growing. However, there are no policies controlling these khat effects. Objective: To present policy option to curtail health and economic impact of khat chewing practice in Ethiopia. Methods: Narrative literature review was made to look into different effects of khat chewing with a particular reference to Ethiopia. Key findings khat chewing has stimulating, euphoric and addictive effects. It has a constricting effect on blood vessels leading to hypertension. It has also neuropsychiatric and physical consequences including aggression, suicidal ideation, anxiety, paranoia, manic behaviors, insomnia, depression, increased heart rate, anorexia and weight loss, dental and pulmonary problems. Additionally, khat abuse found linked to liver damage and failure. Conclusion: Given that medical risks of khat use are modest, or studies are not conclusive, there should be a regulatory framework with the objective of protecting consumers and community. This is best achieved by establishing processes for the quality control of khat and by regulating access and availability. Conclusive studies are very rare and even some are inadequate and contradictory. Most of the evidences on adverse effects of khat come from case reports and observational studies. Therefore, high quality research is justified.

Effect of Ethanol Leaf Extract of Khat (Catha edulis forsk) on Prefrontal Cortex Oxidative Markers and Hematological Profile of Wistar Rats

Aim: This study evaluated the effect of ethanol leaf extract of Catha edulis on the prefrontal cortex oxidative markers and hematological profile of Wistar rats.&#x0D; Study Design: The study design was experimental.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Department of Biochemistry, Kampala International University, Uganda and Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda. Between January and May, 2021.&#x0D; Methodology: Fresh C. edulis leaves were collected after on-spot identification, and authenticated before being chopped into small pieces and pulverized mechanically. The powdered material was extracted through cold maceration using 70% ethanol for 72 h. The extract was concentrated in vacuo to dryness at 40oC using rotary evaporator. The lethal dose (LD50) of the crude extract was determined using acute toxicity test. The sub-acute toxicity of the crude extract was evaluated by orally administering daily doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg to the male Wistar rats for 28 days. The animals were monitored for mortality, behavioral and physiological signs of toxicity. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT) activities and Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were estimated using standard methods. The blood samples were analyzed using the automated hematology analyzer: Mindray BC-6000. Shenzhen, China.&#x0D; Results: The median lethal dose (LD50) of the C. edulis leaf extract was greater than 5000mg/kg b w. The SOD and CAT activities of C. edulis treated groups compared to the control group were significantly (p &lt; 0.05) reduced, the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were increased in C. edulis treated groups compared to the control group. There was no significant change in the hematological parameters, however, there were slight variations in the WBC and RBC counts in some C. edulis treated groups.&#x0D; Conclusion: Long term chewing of C. edulis could result in oxidative stress. It is therefore important for chronic C. edulis leaf chewers to take caution.

Catha edulis Forsk and Ascorbic Acid Effects on Hematological Indices in Rat.

BackgroundThe prevalence of chewing Catha edulis Forsk and the use of ascorbic acid is increasing from time to time. Their subchronic effects on hematological indices are not well examined. The present study was aimed to investigate their subchronic effects on hematological indices in rats.Materials and MethodsA total of 36 adult (7–8 weeks) wild-type rats weighing between 213 and 229g were used in this study. They received Catha edulis Forsk extract (Ce) (100 milligrams/kilogram, 200 milligram/kilogram and 300 milligram/kilogram b.w), Catha edulis Forsk juice (2.5 mL/kg), ascorbic acid (AA 200 milligram/kilogram), and 2% tween 80 in distilled water (T80W- v/v) for twelve weeks. Hematological indices were measured with Sysmex KX-21. Data were analyzed by SPSS version 21.0 and Microsoft Excel.ResultsNeutrocytes (p < 0.01), lymphocytes (p < 0.05), plateletcrit (p < 0.05), average size of platelets (p < 0.05), platelet size variability (p < 0.01), platelet–large cell ratio (p < 0.05) and neutrocytes/lymphocytes ratio (p < 0.001) were significantly greater, while hemoglobin concentration per red blood cell (p < 0.05) and hemoglobin concentration per volume of red blood cells were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) in rats received khat. The red cell distribution width (p < 0.05), platelet size variability (p < 0.05) and platelet–large cell ratio (p < 0.01) were significantly greater in rats received ascorbic acid.ConclusionCrude Catha edulis Forsk extract and juice changed some hematological indices and increased platelet activities. The platelet activity was also increased by ascorbic acid. The mechanisms for these changes need to be investigated.

Toxic Effect of Khat in Rat Embryos and Fetuses.

Khat (Catha edulis Forsk) is a plant consumed by many people in Eastern Africa, including Ethiopia, and Southern Arabia to be stimulated. There are several human and animal studies on khat that provide information about its toxic effects. However, the potential toxic effects of khat on embryos and fetuses have not been elucidated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the embryotoxic and fetotoxic effects of khat exposure during the earliest period of gestation in rats. Pregnant Wistar albino rats were treated with khat extract at 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg doses from day 6 through day 12 of gestation. The treatment was delivered by gavage. Embryos and fetuses were recovered on gestational day 12 or day 20, respectively, and were quantitatively and qualitatively assessed for developmental anomalies. Placentae from the treatment and control groups were investigated for histopathological effects. Results of the present study showed that khat exposure during pregnancy had dose-dependent toxic effects in rat embryos and fetuses. Prenatal growth retardation such as reduced fetal weight and crown-rump length was observed in near-term fetuses, especially, in animals treated with the highest dose of khat (p < 0.05). Growth retardation and developmental anomalies were also observed in day 12 embryos of khat-treated rats. Maternal weight gain of the khat-treated group was also significantly lower than the control group. Cytolysis, decidual hypoplasia, and atrophy were observed in the placenta of the khat-treated rats. Findings of the present study revealed, for the first time, that exposure of pregnant rat to crude extract of khat causes embryotoxic and fetotoxic effects.

Performance Characterization of Charcoal Briquette Made from Khat (Catha Edulis Forsk) Residue: Case Study for Hawassa City, Ethiopia

The leaves of 'khat' (Catha edulis Forsk), a plant widely grown in Ethiopia are chewed by local people for their stimulant action. Its branches and part of the leaves are thrown as solid waste. The objectives of this study was to characterize fuel briquette made from this waste disposed in Hawassa city, Ethiopia. First, charcoal fines were prepared from the khat branches and the leaves. The charcoal fines were then mixed with 20% of clay (as a binder). It was followed by molding the mixture in a press machine to produce Branch Charcoal Briquette (BCB) and Leaves Charcoal Briquette (LCB). The experimental results showed the Carbonized Branch Briquette Charcoal ( CBBC ) has an average calorific values of 19,890 kJ/kg and its other performance parameters are also within the acceptable range. Hence, the city's khat residue can be easily processed into CBBC to substitute yearly 480 ton of charcoal and reduce roughly 1,020 tons of carbon dioxide emission to the environment. The CLBC did not gave satisfactory results. Hence, it had been recommended to be studied further.

Allometric equations for estimating aboveground biomass of khat (Catha edulis)-stimulate grown in agroforestry of Raya Valley, Northern Ethiopia

Khat plant (Catha edulis Forsk) is an evergreen perennial cash crop cultivated in east Africa, southwest Arabia, and Madagascar. The plant is known for its production of stimulant fresh leaves, and expanding as expense of other land uses for its short-term financial returns. We, therefore, developed allometric equations for estimating aboveground biomass and carbon (C) removal of khat grown in farmlands of Raya Valley, Northern Ethiopia. A total of 31 plant individuals were harvested destructively on the basis of their diameters and age ranges. The equations were parametrized using biometric variables such as basal diameter (d10), diameter at breast height (d), dominate height (doh) and mean height (h). Results of the analysis showed that, stem accounted for 58%, branch 32% and foliage 10% of the aboveground biomass (AGB). Commercial foliage biomass C removal ranged from 2.3 to 2.7 Mg ha−1. The power equation, AGB = b1×d10b2×dohb3, was the best (highest ranked using goodness-of-fit statistics), explaining 96% of the variation in aboveground biomass (p < 0.01). Models comparisons showed that our best ranked equation (M6) improved the aboveground biomass estimate by 44% and 48 % that of generic and other species-site specific equations developed in the tropics, respectively. Thus, our best species-site specific equation developed in this study can accurately estimate aboveground of khat plant biomass in the study region.

Effects of Consuming Catha Edulis Forsk (khat)on the Gene Manifestation of CHRM1 and CHRM3 in relation to Salivary Glands, Saliva Flow Rates, pH and Dental Caries in Yemeni Consumers

Background:The current study has been conducted to estimate the impact of Catha Edulis Forsk (simply known as khat) on pH and saliva flow rate in teeth unaffected by caries among patients from Arab, Yemen, consuming the plant. The goal was to evaluate the relation of these indicators with gene manifestation ofCHRM1andCHRM3,which contributes to the regulation of saliva secretions.Methods:Overall, 60 respondents aged between 27 and 54 years were selected for the research. They were distributed among two groups, group I and group II, including 30 respondents equally. Group I incorporated respondents consuming no khat, having teeth caries, adequate saliva flow, and generally, healthy oral cavity. In turn, group II incorporated respondents consuming khat having caries-free teeth, inadequate saliva flow and relatively unhealthy oral cavity. Saliva samples were taken from all respondents. They were analyzed for indicators of flow rate as well as pH of saliva. Salivary gland biopsy specimens have also been taken. The whole RNA was allocated, cDNA synthesized and reinforced to estimate the gene manifestation ofCHRM1andCHRM3.Results:A considerable rise in the mean salivary flow rate along with a drastic decline in the mean salivary pH within caries-free teeth among the respondents consuming khat was observed during the study. The mRNA expressionsCHRM1andCHRM3were significantly increased among participants consuming khat. Results were contrasted to the control group of patients not consuming khat.Conclusion:The characteristics of salivary flow rate, pH, and caries-free teeth have been related to the gene manifestations ofCHRM1andCHRM3in respondents consuming khat.

Catha edulis Forsk (khat) reduces spontaneous and rewarded alternation in female mice

Around 10 million people chew the fresh leaves and twigs of Catha edulis Forsk (khat), which synthesize cathinone, for its psychostimulatory effect. Several studies have reported that regular khat users show executive and cognitive dysfunction, such as impaired inhibitory control and poor performance on memory tests. In this study, the effect of fresh khat extract (100 and 250mg/kg) on spatial working memory and short-term memory in mice was assessed using spontaneous and rewarded alternation T-maze tests. In the spontaneous alternation test, mice treated with fresh khat extract decreased their spontaneous alternation level to around chance level, and it remained at this level over the 7 days of khat administration and testing. On testing after a 7-day khat free period, the previously khat treated mice showed alternation level above chance but below their pre-khat alternation level. In the rewarded alternation test, acute treatment with khat caused the mice to alternate well below chance level, and then over the next 3 days of khat treatment, the alternation level increased. After a 2 and 9-day khat-free period, the previously khat treated mice alternated above chance level but below their pre-khat level. In both these tests, the mice did not show any position preference before khat treatment; however, during the khat treatment, the mice showed a right side tendency. The results show that khat treatment causes persistent changes in alternation behavior and promotes perseverative behavior, presumably due to its effect on the neural circuits activity and the neurotransmitters and promotion of position preference.