Caterpillar Tractor Research Articles

THE FIRST CENTURY OF KIROV TRACTORS

In 2024, it will be one hundred years since the start of serial production of the Fordson-Putilovets tractor at the Krasny Putilovets plant in Leningrad. This event marks the formation of the tractor industry in the domestic engineering industry. The history of tractor production at the plant is rich in events that are significant for our country. In 1934, for the first time in the USSR, serial production of Universal row crop tractors was established here. In the late 1930s, tracked row crop tractors K-8, K-9, K-10 were created. In 1945, the Kirov Plant, located during the war in Chelyabinsk at ChTZ, created and mastered the serial production of the first industrial caterpillar tractor in our country "Stalinets-80". In 1947, the Kirov plant began to produce KT-12 skidders, which had no analogues in the world tractor industry. In 1964, the plant mastered the production of the Kirovets tractor with all drive wheels and an articulated frame with a capacity of 200 hp. Over the past sixty years (1964-2024), 52 models of Kirovets agricultural tractors have been developed and put into production. In the "Soviet" period from 1964 to 1991, 4 models of new Kirovets tractors were put into production, and in the "Russian" period from 1992 to the present - 48. The intensity of implementation has increased approximately tenfold, which indicates the increased activity of design and technological services in a market economy. Analysis of the energy saturation of tractors shows its increase by 1.5 times from 12.3 to 18.6 W/kg. Starting from 2000, Kirovets began to develop within the framework of the "traction-energy" concept, when ballast weights, double wheels, wide-profile tires, rubber-cord tracks, etc. are used to realize their potential traction capabilities. With the further growth of energy saturation, and this is an integral part of technical progress, it is necessary to search for new solutions in terms of realizing the power of the tractor in agricultural operations. From 1964 to 2024, specific fuel consumption decreased by 1.2 times (from 258 to 214 g/kWh), which indicates the improvement of diesel engines. The new Kirovets K 525T (250 hp) and K-530T (300 hp) produced in 2024 absorbed all the achievements of the domestic tractor industry. The K-525T is equipped with a new gearbox that provides speeds of up to 50 km/h. A modern tractor of the Kirovets brand manufactured by PTZ carries in its design all the achievements of scientific and technical progress, effectively performs technological operations in agricultural production and provides comfortable working conditions for the tractor driver.

Continuously Variable Two-Flow Hydrostatic-Mechanical Transmission of Crawler Tractor

The paper proposes an original design of a continuously variable two-flow hydrostatic-mechanical transmission, which ensures division of the power flow along the sides of the crawler tractor. To ensure stability of rectilinear motion, their volumetric and mechanical efficiency, the maximum pressure of the working fluid in the hydraulic transmission, the maximum speed and torque on the shaft of the hydraulic motor. The parameters of an unregulated hydraulic motor, an adjust-table pump and mechanical transmission elements are selected. A mathematical model of the rectilinear motion of a caterpillar tractor with a continuously variable hydrostatic-mechanical transmission has been developed, taking into account the weight of the tractor, the parameters of the running system, the characteristics of the internal combustion engine, the parameters and efficiency of hydraulic machines, gearboxes, range and transfer boxes, planetary gear and allowing to determine the efficiency of individual branches and the entire transmission, carry out traction calculations of the tractor. A calculation program has been developed that implements the mathematical model. The parameters of the dual-flow transmission are selected so that most of the torque is transmitted through the mechanical branch and the transmission has a fairly high efficiency value. The maximum value of tractor traction efficiency is realized in the second and third ranges, which are designed to perform basic tillage operations.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ КОНСТРУКЦИИ ТРАКТОРОВ ДЛЯ РАБОТЫ НА СКЛОНАХ

The problems of creating tractors, self-propelled chassis, forestry and agricultural machines of special designs for the mechanization of crop production, land reclamation and construction in hard-to-reach conditions of forest, agricultural and mountain lands are considered in the work. A comparative analysis of design solutions that have found application in domestic and foreign tractors used in the performance of technological and transport operations on sloping lands and badlands in agriculture and forestry is given. It is noted that a number of models of universal row-crop tractors provide for the possibility of increasing stability by turning the housings of the remote final drives relative to the rear axle housing. For tractors, at the same time, the wheelbase increases and the ground clearance (ground clearance) decreases. It is indicated that the analysis of the features of the operation of wheeled tractors on the slopes made it possible to substantiate the methods and means that improve their main indicators: differential lock; lowering the center of gravity; the use of tires with high lugs, additional steel wheels, lugs, expanders; the use of half-tracks and wheeled tractors with a 4K4 wheel arrangement. The advantages and disadvantages of using tracked and wheeled tractors as the base machine have been established. Slope preference for tractors with front drive axle. Such tractors, equipped with the previously listed devices, have better traction properties, maneuverability and controllability, approaching caterpillar tractors in these indicators. Recommendations for the implementation on slopes, forest and agricultural lands of all-wheel drive low-clearance wheeled tractors are given in the work. In conclusion, it is indicated that, despite the considered features, when creating tractors for working on small-contour plots located on slopes up to 25 °, preference is given to wheeled low-clearance tractors, which is caused by a cheap design due to minor design changes compared to the basic models.

Punks in Peoria: Making a Scene in the American Heartland by Jonathan Wright and Dawson Barrett

Reviewed by: Punks in Peoria: Making a Scene in the American Heartland by Jonathan Wright and Dawson Barrett David Woken Jonathan Wright and Dawson Barrett, Punks in Peoria: Making a Scene in the American Heartland. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2021. xi, 238 pp. $22.95 (paper). In Punks in Peoria, Jonathan Wright's and Dawson Barrett's account of the underground youth music scene in Peoria, Illinois, Gared O'Donnell of local band Planes Mistaken for Stars remarks on their decision to move to Denver: "I guess in your early twenties … Peoria was a great place to be from, but it wasn't a great place to stay" (171). Many of us who first encountered underground music in the declining Rust Belt towns that dotted the Midwest did indeed find our hometowns better places to be from than to stay, and Wright's and Barrett's account of youth seeking escape from the stifling confines of their culturally conservative and economically stagnating surroundings is a welcome addition to studies that complicate canonical accounts of punk rock and broader do-it-yourself (DIY) youth culture that focus on the most famous bands and major cities. "There is no obvious place for Peoria in the punk rock pantheon" (7), they note, yet the story they [End Page 85] tell makes a powerful argument for paying attention to peripheral cultural scenes around the world, and it provides useful context to understand how discontented midwestern youth sought creative expression amid the economic and social changes sweeping the industrial heartland. Based on local news reports, zines, social media reminiscences, and, most importantly, interviews with a wide range of participants in the Peoria DIY scene, Punks in Peoria tells a rollicking story of youth culture in a town that is synonymous with conservative middle-American values and tastes. The book chronicles bands that enjoyed local notoriety but largely failed to burst onto the national stage. Shows thrown together in diverse spaces (fairgrounds, college gymnasia, record stores, skate parks, rented VFW and American Legion halls, short-lived all-ages night clubs, private houses, and even an abandoned mental hospital) occupied informal spaces familiar to those who experienced similar small-town scenes. Enlivening the text are colorful profiles of local characters like long-running shock artist Bloody F. Mess, explanations of local slang like the regional term for an outsider teen ("cornchip"), and descriptions of short-lived show spaces that entered local legend like the Airwaves skate park and anarchopunk Tiamat Records. The authors also provide accounts of legendary shows by internationally famous (or infamous) acts that demonstrate how DIY culture offended the sensibilities of staid Midwesterners while offering ecstatic liberation to the young. These included GG Allin's scatological 1985 performance that saw him chased off by police and Legionnaires after just two songs, and a 1999 show by anarchist metallic hardcore provocateurs Catharsis that ended in the band leading the audience into the alley behind Tiamat for a round of impromptu drumming and fire-dancing that stopped only when police arrived to shut the event down. Wright's and Barrett's focus remains firmly on telling details and anecdotes about the local musicians, zinesters, and show organizers who built and re-built their scene, and their stories make for entertaining and engrossing material. The opening chapter paints a vivid picture of pre-1980s Peoria, an industrial town of breweries, distilleries, and the Caterpillar tractor factory, and home to a strong union tradition. But it was also one of the most segregated cities in the nation (a fact noted in the stand-up comedy of the town's most famous son, Richard Pryor) and one with a reputation for conservative, middlebrow sensibilities despite the fact that it had long been a stop for vaudeville and blues musicians traveling between Chicago and St. Louis. Yet this sort of big picture falls short in much of the rest of [End Page 86] the book when they consider DIY youth culture. They do succinctly sum up one of the core tensions in punk rock, between nihilistic rejection and positive change, by contrasting Bloody Mess's shock antics with the positive DIY spirit of Peoria's first hardcore punk band...

The use of small-sized tractors in agriculture

The most complex and expensive machines on the agricultural machinery market are tractors and combines. The number of agricultural tractors produced in Russia in 2019 amounted to 3,798 units, but only 38.7 of them are domestic, and 61.3% are foreign cars assembled in Russia. All tractors are classified according to purpose, type of propulsion unit and type of frame. By the type of mover, wheeled and tracked tractors are the most common. Wheeled tractors are easy to manufacture, operate, maintain, have a lower cost, and are more versatile. Caterpillar tractors, in turn, are more effective on waterlogged and loose soils, since, due to the larger support area, they have less impact on the ground. The share of small-scale enterprises in gross agricultural production in 2020 increased to 14.3% due to the implementation of state programs for the development of small agribusiness. This category of farms produces about a third of the total volume of grain - 39.4 million tons. Despite the significant role of small-scale enterprises in the agricultural economy of Russia, this category of farms is not sufficiently provided with the necessary agricultural machinery, such as small tractors with the necessary attachments. Moreover, the demand for domestically produced mini tractors is growing every year due to their versatility, operational reliability and ease of maintenance. The lack of mini-tractors in the consumer market forces farmers to use tractors of traction class 1.4 and 2 in the production of products, which leads to excessive pressure on the ground, its overcompaction and destruction of the structure. In addition, on small-area fields with difficult terrain for the operation of equipment, it is impossible to fully implement the efficiency of tractors of this traction class. These factors substantiate the need for further development and manufacture of mini-tractors, taking into account existing global trends, such as the use of artificial intelligence, which includes decision support systems, expert systems, autonomous robots and robotic systems, as well as unmanned units.

To the problem of reducing the impact on soil during mechanization of thinning

The relevance of mechanization of various levels in carrying out planned thinning for forest areas of various types is shown. An explanation is proposed for the increased destructive effect on the soil, exerted by the propeller of a caterpillar tractor, containing tracks connected by hinges of a sequential type. The ways of reducing the peak loads under the tracks of commercially available tractors are proposed in order to reduce the destructive effect on the support base during the operation of the machine when carrying out planned works in the organization of rational forest management.

Цифровой двойник быстроходной гусеничной машины с бортовым гидрообъемным механизмом поворота

The article is devoted to the study of the processes occurring in the transmission and turning mechanism of the high-speed tractor with the original structure of the gear and turning mechanism (GTM). The traditional design of the gear-lever double-flow GTM is supplemented by three hydraulic machines connected by two hydraulic lines. This allowed the tractor to implement any turning radius from a straight line to a turn in place around the center of gravity. A mathematical model (digital twin) of a high-speed caterpillar tractor has been developed, with the help of which it was possible to select the parameters of the tractor automatic traffic control system, which ensures that the vehicle passes a serpentine-type track in fourth gear at a speed of 34 km/h, which is unattainable with the traditional GTM of this machine. The indicators of controllability of the tractor movement near the skid boundary are analyzed. It is shown that the turn of a high-speed tracked vehicle at the drift boundary is very attractive from an energy point of view. Turning due to inertial forces significantly unloads the internal combustion engine, and ultimately reduces fuel consumption. The difficulty lies in driving the car at the edge of the skid. The article shows that the servo control system successfully solves this problem. Information about the curvature of the track, which can be formed by GPS navigation or reference points on the ground, was used as a setting signal. The result of the study is graphs of changes in the hydrostatic transmission pump control parameter, pressure in the hydrostatic transmission lines, rotational speeds of the driving wheels, the displacement of the pole of rotation, which characterizes the degree of approach to the skid boundary, and the movement trajectory in Cartesian coordinates

ОЦЕНКА НЕРАВНОМЕРНОСТИ ГЛУБИНЫ РЫХЛЕНИЯ МЕЛИОРИРУЕМЫХ ЗЕМЕЛЬ РАБОЧИМ ОРГАНОМ МЕЛИОРАТИВНОГО РЫХЛИТЕЛЯ

The working equipment used for deep loosening of heavy mechanical soils during the restoration of temporarily unclaimed agricultural lands includes a basic machine unit with attachments infl uenced by signifi cant oscillatory loads during its operation. The variability of the physical and mechanical properties of the treated soil aff ects the uneven depth of loosening and the machine operation. This is one of the main technological indicators evaluating the performance features of rippers. The research purpose is to analyze the ripper as a dynamic system and estimate the magnitude of the fl uctuations in the loosening depth depending on the surface irregularities of the machine’s path along the fi eld. The research was carried out according to generally accepted methods using modeling. The authors considered the functioning model of the reclamation ripper in the form of an “environment – machine – technological process” dynamic system, which converts input disturbances and control actions into output ones. The study results of reclamation ripper dynamic models have shown that average terrain irregularities of 5…10 cm result in the amplitude of cutting edge vibrations of a pneumatic-wheeled ripper equaling 8…15 cm and 6…12 cm for the ripper coupled with a caterpillar tractor. According to agrotechnical requirements, a loosening depth of 0.8 m results in the permissible deviations of 8 cm.

VOLUMETRIC HYDRAULIC DRIVE MODELLING IN TRANSMISSIONS OF TRACTORS AND SELF-PROPELLED MACHINES

The development of a mathematical description of the individual nodes of the object of study makes the mathematical models non-linear, using both deterministic and probabilistic characteristics. Moreover, it is not possible to obtain a solution in general form for such mathematical models without significant simplifications. Modern computer technology allows you to move on to the modular method of compiling mathematical models when a bank of models of individual units and assemblies is developed, the combination of which makes it possible in a short time to collect the required generalized mathematical model or supplement it with newly created modules. The main elements of the aggregates together determine the nature of the transient processes and dynamic loads in the transmission at various operating modes, and will be considered as some modules from which you can build the mathematical model necessary for the study. One of these modules is a volumetric hydraulic drive (GCP), which are increasingly being used in the transmissions of modern tractors and self-propelled agricultural machines. In the presented article, a mathematical description of axial piston hydraulic machines is considered, in which the power and kinematic gear ratios in the GCP can be adjusted both at the pump and at the hydraulic motor. The dynamic characteristics of hydraulic machines, fluid leakage and its elastic properties, as well as variable values of hydraulic drive efficiency are taken into account. The simulation results were compared with experimental studies. The discrepancy between them was in the range (5-8)%. As the objects of study were used: a model of the T-150E caterpillar tractor with independent full-threaded UCP of the left and right sides; harvesting machine KS-6B with OGP on the rear drive axle; harvesting machine KS-6V with independent UCP on the rear and front drive axles; layout of a combine harvester with independent UCP of the left and right sides of the rear drive wheels.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF DIESEL ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS FOR DETERMINING THE PERFORMANCE OF TRACTION DYNAMICS OF WHEEL-TYPE TRACTOR

Wheel-type tractors carry out a range of processing operations, with the exception of early spring work, when caterpillar tractors are used to reduce the compaction effect on the soil. Therefore, to plan the costs and reserves associated with fuel consumption, it is necessary to have an estimate of the fuel economy of the tractor in basic agricultural operations. An objective assessment of fuel consumption requires a mathematical model that describes the fuel characteristics of the engine, taking into account the speed and load torque in a wide range of variation. Verification of the model is possible only with experimental data. Since the efficiency and fuel economy of a tractor depends not only on engine performance, but also on the perfection of the transmission, the running system and the rational choice of speed, it is necessary to take into account the time-varying nature of the tractor’s traction load. The complex of agricultural operations can be divided into characteristic cycles of load change over time. This principle is the basis of PowerMix test cycles, which are conducted on a concrete track to ensure repeatability of the experiment. The use of the variable load on the tractor in the PowerMix tests is positive, but in actual field tests the results may differ due to the instability of the soil properties. On the other hand, PowerMix field cycles can be taken as standard test loads in the simulation of tractor traction tests on the ground

ОЦЕНКА УСТОЙЧИВОСТИ И ЭКОЛОГИЧНОСТИ РОБОТИЗИРОВАННОГО КОРЧЕВАТЕЛЯ ОБОРУДОВАННОГО ШИРОПРОФИЛЬНЫМИ ШИНАМИ

The article analyzes the technical means for uprooting trees. Tools aggregated with wheel and caterpillar tractors of various traction classes are the most popular ones in Russia. Abroad, self-propelled stump removers with high engine power and high performance are used, which are in demand in various industries (forestry, agricultural and oil and gas complexes, road construction), when laying high-voltage power lines and their maintenance, as well as in other areas of the national economy. The analysis of technical means for uprooting trees has shown that the dominant trend is creation of stump removers that ensure safety of the process, its high productivity and decrease in the number of personnel on felling. Self-propelled robotic stump remover equipped with wide-profile low-pressure tires has been developed to implement innovative technologies in the forest complex. Ensuring the technological process is carried out by robot-eradicator in unmanned mode. It is achieved by using a technical vision system, navigation equipment, automated control of technological equipment, transmission and steering. The aim of the study was to evaluate the longitudinal stability of a robotic self-propelled stump remover during vertical transportation of a tree and environmental compatibility of its wheeled mover with soil and vegetation cover. Conducted theoretical studies have found that the proposed layout scheme of a self-propelled stump remover provides longitudinal stability when moving with a tree in an upright position without the use of ballast counterweights behind the rear axle. It was also found that the wheel mover of the stump remover equipped with wide-profile low-pressure tires is environmentally friendly when performing technological operations in the summer-autumn period

Treatment of the Low Extremity Severe Mechanical Injury with Uncompensated Ischemia (Case Report)

Relevance. Discussion of the criteria for decision making “amputation vs. preservation”, when viability of the extremity is uncertain, has been continuing. The case description. The lower extremity of a serviceman was injured by a caterpillar tractor. The severity of the damage was determined by the following conditions: open segmental fracture of the femoral diaphysis, 5 cm traction-compression damage of the popliteal artery, acute thrombosis of the popliteal and tibial arteries, sciatic nerve damage, circular detachment of the thigh skin, acute hemorrhage, II degree shock, and uncompensated lower extremity ischemia throughout 24 hours. The MESS score of the injured extremity was 8 indicating that an amputation would have been considered. Nevertheless, we choose the organ preservation solution with the revascularization of the injured limb segment. A multi-stage treatment was carried out including stabilization of bone fragments, primary reconstruction of the popliteal artery to restore the arterial blood flow in the injured extremity, reperfusion injury and myoglobinuria elimination, intensive kidney protection therapy, infection management, skin defects replacement, orthopedic surgery. As a result of the treatment, the injured limb was saved. The femur fracture healed allowing the patient to walk without assistance. Conclusion. The use of the programmed surgical treatment for severe mechanical injury of the lower extremity, an individual multi disciplinary approach, assessing the severity of systemic disorders, and timely use of extracorporeal detoxification made it possible to avoid amputation, perform organ preservation surgery, and create favorable conditions for restoring the supporting function of the lower extremity.

Damage prevention analysis of heavy-duty gear body based on finite element neural network

The method of damage prevention analysis of heavy-duty gear body based on finite element neural network is proposed to improve the effectiveness of damage prevention analysis of heavy-duty gear body. Firstly, a design platform for gearbox gears of caterpillar tractors is developed based on finite element theory, the three-dimensional model of the gear is designed on this platform, and the bending and contact finite element analysis of the gear teeth is carried out, the bending stress and contact stress of the gears are obtained, which provides a basis for the parameter design and reliability of the gears. Secondly, a neural network algorithm is introduced to predict and analyse the impact of damage data of heavy-duty gear body. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm is verified by simulation experiments.

DETERMINATION OF THE ELECTRIC DRIVE POWER FOR LIGHTLY ARMORED CATERPILLAR AND WHEELED VEHICLES USING SINGLE- OR TWO-STAGE MECHANICAL GEARBOXES

When designing electromechanical transmissions (EMT) for lightly armored caterpillar and wheeled vehicles (LACWV), there is often a problem that the coefficient of adaptability of the traction motor (TM) at the minimum design power is not sufficient to meet the requirements for the power range of the transmission. In the literature, several ways have been worked out to solve this problem, however, there was not found a single algorithm allowing to formalize and step by step pass the process of choosing the most rational structure of the EMT. The purpose of the proposed work is the formation of scientifically based methodology for evaluating the possibility of using single-stage gearboxes in EMT for LACWV and calculation of the required TM power of the selected type for single- or two-stage mechanical gearboxes. Methodology. To carry out the research, the theory of motion of caterpillar and wheeled vehicles was used . Result. A formalized methodology for determining the required mechanical power of the electric drive for the LACWV is proposed, depending on the power capabilities of the motor-generator set, the torque characteristics of the selected TM and the number of stages in the mechanical gearboxes. Scientific novelty. For the first time, a formalized connection has been established between the tactical and technical requirements for LACWV, the characteristics of the selected TM, the structure and parameters of the mechanical gearboxes. Practical value. The toolkit for the engineering and design personnel developing the EMT for the LACWV was obtained. Work with the algorithm is illustrated by the example of power selection and gear ratios of mechanical gearboxes for the multi-purpose lightly armored caterpillar tractor MT-LB.

Agricultural tractors on Russian market (based on the International exhibition “Agrosalon 2018”)

The review of an exposition of the agricultural tractors presented at the international exhibition "Agrosalon 2018" which was taking place in Moscow from October 9 to October 12 is provided. Along with domestic manufacturers and the CIS countries: Petersburg Tractor Plant, the Rostselmash, the Bryansk tractor plant, the Minsk tractor plant), the products were exhibited and advertized by also leading global manufacturers of agricultural tractors: AGCO (USA) (Fendt, Challenger, Massey Ferguson, Valtra), Deere & Co (USA), Case New Holland (CNH) (USA). CLAAS (Germany). The Market of agricultural tractors of the Russian Federation is in a quantitative sense comparable to the markets of leaders of the European Union countries: Italy, Germany, France. The available qualitative differences are explained by features of agricultural production, the sizes of the agricultural enterprises and their infrastructure, a ratio in the park wheels and caterpillars tractors, solvent demand and other factors. In formation of the market of tractors the following directions gain development: accent shift towards tractors of high power with simultaneous strengthening of positions of tractors with driving wheels of the identical size (4k4b), special attention to caterpillars which are offered in options: traditional - two-caterpillar and nonconventional - four-caterpillar at which driving wheels of tractor 4k4b are replaced with the modules of triangular shape supplied with rubber-reinforced tracks .The following feature of the domestic market of tractors is existence of the real competition in segments: powerful tractors 4k4b, universal tractors of average power and also caterpillars of high power that is defined by a variety of offers and openness of the market of the agricultural equipment. The feature of the market is its heterogeneity on technological level of the offered machines that is explained first of all by different purchasing power of buyers. Studying of exhibits shows that the trends of development of designs of tractors, their units and systems noted by us when studying exhibitions "Agrosalon 2014" and "Agrosalon 2016" keep the actuality. Keeps actuality also a question what has to be the mass caterpillar tractor for agricultural production of the Russian Federation.

Catherine Morris and Rujeko Hockley, eds., We Wanted a Revolution: Black Radical Women, 1965–85. New York: Brooklyn Museum, 2017. Pp. 320. $24.95 (paper).Terrion L. Williamson, Scandalize My Name: Black Feminist Practice and the Making of Black Social Life. New York: Fordham University Press, 2017. Pp. 128. $25.00 (paper).

Catherine Morris and Rujeko Hockley, eds., <i>We Wanted a Revolution: Black Radical Women, 1965–85</i>. New York: Brooklyn Museum, 2017. Pp. 320. $24.95 (paper).Terrion L. Williamson, <i>Scandalize My Name: Black Feminist Practice and the Making of Black Social Life</i>. New York: Fordham University Press, 2017. Pp. 128. $25.00 (paper).

Preliminary analysis of effects of the 2006 Turin Winter Olympic Games on air quality.

This paper presents preliminary results about Turin’s air quality before, during and after the realization of the infrastructure projects for the Turin 2006 XX Winter Olympic Games. We compared the 3-year in-operam (work in progress) period (i.e. 2003–2005, when all infrastructures needed for the organization were built) with the periods before (ante-operam) and after (post-operam): 2000–2002 and 2006–2008, respectively. In particular, we analyzed the concentrations of the primary pollutants (nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter, PM10) in Turin and Milan. In this way, we could use the measurements from Milan as a control dataset for comparison with the atmospheric pollution conditions in Turin. We found that infrastructural work for the Olympic Games in Turin affected NO2 and PM10 atmospheric concentrations, determining a peak in the average values during the in-operam period (probably due to caterpillar tractor emissions and excavation). This pattern did not emerge from the Milan data, where a decreasing trend can be seen between the ante-operam and the post-operam periods. On the other hand, a negative effect on CO levels was not observed: the decreasing trend, more evident in Turin compared to Milan, can be linked to the expansion during the same period of limited traffic areas created to facilitate the infrastructural work.

Who Owns a Factory?: Caterpillar Tractors in Uddingston, 1956–1987

This study of the Caterpillar earthmoving-equipment factory at Uddingston in Lanarkshire from its opening in 1956 to closure in 1987 contributes to debates about workforce resistance to deindustrialization. The analysis demonstrates how workers and communities asserted rights to ‘ownership’ of a valued local resource. Built on the site of a former mining village and the largest single industrial unit in Scotland during the 1960s, the factory was established with regional financial assistance. Policy-makers tacitly offered a viable future with more sustainable employment than coal mining. This promise was violated, first by the firm’s anti-union production regime which the workers overturned with a successful strike in the winter of 1960-61; and second, when the closure was announced in 1987. Workers challenged the company’s right to dispose freely of the factory and its equipment which had been developed with public money and their efforts. A 103-day occupation from January to April 1987 was led by a factory trade-union organization embedded in an extensive social infrastructure, with powerful familial ties. Moral economy claims of communal ownership of the factory were asserted by the occupiers in the face of corporate power and private property rights. Though unsuccessful the occupation represented an important attempt to resist the acceleration of deindustrialization in the 1980s.

Creating a domestic caterpillar tractor for modern agricultural production

The generated deficit in the last decades of universal tractors and tractors for the arable farming which belongs to the class 2…3, produced during the times of the USSR in the countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, as well as the problems of agricultural production created conditions for intensive expansion by foreign companies which are actively conquering the domestic market. However, the foreign samples have a high cost with a low adaptation to the conditions of the regions of the Russian Federation and the lack of proper service maintenance. The question of the necessity to create the domestic universal caterpillar tractor was raised in the article, and the prerequisites for its creation are propounded. The necessity to expand the scope of application the tractor was discussed. The tractor’s potential competitive advantages in comparison with foreign analogues are pointed out, including the aggregation with a wide range of machines and implements, adjustable track, the ability to move along the different types of roads, improved maneuverability, economy and environmental friendliness, the possibility of stepless speed regulation and etc. The assumed technical solutions for the main units and systems of the tractor are described, including a power unit with an adaptation system for operation on liquefied hydrocarbon gas; transmission, containing a full-flow hydrostatic transmission or a double-flow hydrovolume-mechanical transmission with the drive to each side, as well as the drive of power takeoff shafts (front, rear and side); frame; all-season ecologically safe caterpillar chassis with rubber-reinforced tracks and elements of the caterpillar track on the basis of polymer-composite materials; a modern and comfortable cabin with a steering column. The prospective indicators of economic efficiency from the application of the tractor, as well as the prospects of further equipping the tractor with remote and autonomous control systems are pointed out.

MODERN TENDENCIES OF AGRICULTURAL TRACTORS

It is noted that the main components of the quantitative evaluation of the performance of tractors are the indicators of their energy saturation and universality. The key characteristic of tractors of agricultural purpose is the traction class, which characterizes, first of all, the energy saturation of a tractor. Universality of agricultural tractors is characterized, mainly, by their maximum speeds of movement and average speeds of performance of transport works. It has been established that the most important directions for the development of the design of agricultural tractors are based on increasing their productivity. Increasing productivity is achieved by increasing both energy saturation and versatility, which allows to increase the time of continuous operation and the coefficient of using the tractor. It is determined that the increase in energy saturation is ensured by increasing the power of the power unit of wheeled tractors to 600 hp, as well as the addition of model series with new-level caterpillar tractors, closely aligned with wheel-type models of similar power. At the same time, the leading manufacturers of tractors are performing research and development in the development of the concept of an agricultural tractor with an engine of more than 500 hp. The increase in the universality of tractors is accompanied by the development of their construction, which ensures an increase in the maximum and average speeds of movement. The increase in transport speeds of up to 50–60 km/h and more is achieved by the improvement of stepped gearboxes, the development and introduction of continuously variable transmissions, the use and improvement of the characteristics of the suspension of the front driving axles, the cabin and the operator’s seat, the use of brakes of the front driving axle wheels, anti-lock and anti-traction systems, and all-wheel steering. It is shown that to increase the technical level of tractor equipment, great attention is paid to improving the operator’s working conditions, including by improving the design, improving the ergonomic and aesthetic properties of the cabins, automating work processes by developing and implementing on-board electronic control systems, diagnostics and controls. To reduce costs and increase the efficiency of agricultural production, the use of precision farming systems is becoming increasingly widespread.