Caterpillar Fungus Ophiocordyceps Sinensis Research Articles

Mapping the Ophiocordyceps sinensis value chain: actors, profits and social institutions in south-west China

AbstractCommercial use of wildlife is booming. However, knowledge of trade, price structure and benefit distribution mechanisms remain limited for many endemic, threatened and economically valuable species, impeding efforts to develop conservation intervention schemes in line with sustainable objectives. We illustrate the nature of commercialization of the caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, collected in a high-altitude Tibetan region. Using the value-chain approach, we document how caterpillar fungus is collected in a remote mountainous region and traded across a wide range of middlemen until it finally reaches high-end markets in urban centres. Mapping the caterpillar fungus value chain helps identify the actors involved and the social institutions (i.e. the rules, norms and arrangements that shape people's behaviours) facilitating access to markets and influencing profit distribution and price structure. We present the complex dynamics of this commercialization process, providing a holistic value-chain analysis that encompasses actors, profits and institutions.

Fractional extraction and structural characterization of glycogen particles from the whole cultivated caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn. Cordyceps sinensis) is a valuable medicinal fungus in traditional Chinese medicine, and one or more polysaccharides are the key constituents with important medical effects. Glycogen as a functional polysaccharide is widely identified in eukaryotes including fungi. However, there is no definitive report of glycogen presence in O. sinensis. In this study, we carefully fractionated polysaccharides from cultivated caterpillar fungus O. sinensis, which were then characterized via methods for glycogen analysis. According to the results, 1.03 ± 0.43 % of polysaccharides were quantified via amyloglucosidase digestion in the whole cultivated caterpillar fungus, which had a typical spherical shape under transmission electron microscope with an average peak radius of 37.63 ± 0.57 nm via size exclusion chromatography and an average chain length of 12.47 ± 0.94 degree of polymerization via fluorophore-assisted capillary electrophoresis. Taken together, this study confirmed that the polysaccharides extracted form O. sinensis were mostly glycogen.

Biomass and Cordycepin Production by the Medicinal Mushroom Cordyceps militaris-A Review of Various Aspects and Recent Trends towards the Exploitation of a Valuable Fungus.

Cordyceps militaris is an entomopathogenic ascomycete with similar pharmacological importance to that of the wild caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis. C. militaris has attracted significant research and commercial interest due to its content in bioactive compounds beneficial to human health and the relative ease of cultivation under laboratory conditions. However, room for improvement exists in the commercial-scale cultivation of C. militaris and concerns issues principally related to appropriate strain selection, genetic degeneration of cultures, and substrate optimization. In particular, culture degeneration—usually expressed by abnormal fruit body formation and reduced sporulation—results in important economic losses and is holding back investors and potential growers (mainly in Western countries) from further developing this highly promising sector. In the present review, the main factors that influence the generation of biomass and metabolites (with emphasis on cordycepin biosynthesis) by C. militaris are presented and evaluated in conjunction with the use of a wide range of supplements or additives towards the enhancement of fungal productivity in large-scale cultivation processes. Moreover, physiological and genetic factors that increase or reduce the manifestation of strain degeneration in C. militaris are outlined. Finally, methodologies for developing protocols to be used in C. militaris functional biology studies are discussed.

Typification of Sphaeria sinensis to precisely fix the application of the name of the economically important Chinese caterpillar fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis

AbstractThere is a long‐standing need to fix the application of the name Sphaeria sinensis, basionym of the economically important Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, at the molecular level. The fungus was described by Berkeley in 1843, and is now harvested in the Tibetan Plateau (including the Himalayas). This need arises because of the existence of putative later synonyms in need of confirmation, existence of multiple haplotypes, occurrence of diverged ITS paralogs, and need to be confident of the identity of commercially grown cultures of the asexual morph. Here we report the rediscovery of original material in a spirit collection originally held in the Natural History Museum London but now at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. There are also three undated collections under this name in the Kew Fungarium from Berkeley's herbarium, and another with the name of Reeves, who sent the material to the U.K., but which originated from Hooker's herbarium. There is no proof that any of these four dried collections were used by Berkeley when describing the species. The collection in the spirit jar and the published illustration are the only original materials, and that in the spirit jar is designated as lectotype here; the collection from Hooker's herbarium may be an isolectotype but it was not studied by Berkeley. As no DNA would have been recoverable from the spirit collection, we endeavoured to extract DNA from two of the dried collections. Routine DNA amplification did not yield any ITS fragments, so a metagenomic approach was used and the collection from Hooker's herbarium yielded an entire 3189 bp ITS sequence most similar to those of the haplotype that predominates in the major distributional area of the fungus. A rich modern collection from the core region of the fungus in China, with ample stromata of the fungus on the host, and the ITS sequence matching that obtained from the dried specimen from Hooker's herbarium, is designated as epitype to unequivocally fix the application of the name. Ex‐type living cultures from the epitype were obtained and are also being maintained.

Investigation on antifungal metabolites of Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) against wilt causing pathogen, Fusarium spp

Investigation on antifungal metabolites of Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) against wilt causing pathogen, Fusarium spp

Corrigendum to “The entomophagous caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is consumed by its lepidopteran host as a plant endophyte” [Fungal Ecol. 47 (2020) 100989

Corrigendum to “The entomophagous caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is consumed by its lepidopteran host as a plant endophyte” [Fungal Ecol. 47 (2020) 100989

The entomophagous caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is consumed by its lepidopteran host as a plant endophyte

Abstract Endophytic insect pathogenic fungi of the order Hypocreales reside in plant tissues as mutualistic partners that protect plants against insect herbivores. Caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (order: Hypocreales, family: Ophiocordycipitaceae) is often described as an entomophagous fungus that parasitizes lepidopteran larvae of the ghost moth genus Thitarodes (family: Hepialidae), but recent evidence suggests involvement of a plant-endophytic stage in O. sinensis infection of insect larvae. In this study, we screen sample plant species in a caterpillar fungus collection site at Mt. Gongga, Sichuan, China, for endophytic O. sinensis and analyze the diet of Thitarodes larvae living in the soil of the same habitat. We show that the entomophagous caterpillar fungus O. sinensis is a prevalent plant endophyte (present in 52.6% of all plant genera and 66.7% of plant families) and that the presence of endophytic O. sinensis in plant leaf tissue is significantly correlated with its presence in plant root tissue. Our analysis of larval diet content reveals a high diversity generalist diet and confirms that the plant families harboring endophytic O. sinensis are consumed by Thitarodes larvae, although the composition and diversity of an individual's diet do not predict its level of fungal infection. These results suggest a reproductive strategy of O. sinensis involving a plant endophytic stage that facilitates infection of root-eating host larvae. Our study highlights the role of resident plant communities as a third participating partner in this complex symbiosis.

Thitarodes shambalaensis sp. nov. (Lepidoptera, Hepialidae): a new host of the caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis supported by genome-wide SNP data.

A new species of ghost moth, Thitarodes shambalaensissp. nov., is described from Yanzigou glacier, Mt. Gongga, Sichuan, China. The species is a host of the economically important caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Establishment of this new species is supported by morphology and genetic differentiation measured in a CO1 phylogeny and in genome-wide SNP coverage. A summary tree from 538 sequences of different genetic markers from Thitarodes (including sequences extracted from caterpillar fungus sclerotium samples) support the genus Thitarodes as a monophyletic group, and indicate that Thitarodes is the host genus for O. sinensis. Sampling efforts so far have centered on half of the known phylogenetic diversity of Thitarodes, with some species-level clusters (separated by < 2.5% genetic distance) containing 17 described species. Fifteen clusters are known from either a single “orphan taxon” or a single sequence from a caterpillar fungus sclerotium sample. We provide suggestions for building a more robust phylogeny of the genus Thitarodes and highlight some of the conservation threats that species from this genus face due to unprecedented habitat exploitation.

Yartsagunbu: transforming people's livelihoods in the Western Himalaya

AbstractRural communities in developing countries extract provisioning ecosystem services from the natural environment to meet their subsistence needs, generate cash income and create employment opportunities. Caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, known as yartsagunbu in Tibet and in the literature on this subject, is a medicinal resource extracted by the mountain communities of the Himalaya. Studies of the contribution of the fungus to local livelihoods in the Indian Himalaya are scarce. We investigated trade and harvest and analysed the contribution of caterpillar fungus to household economies in 32 villages in Dhauliganga Valley, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, in the Western Himalaya. Caterpillar fungus harvesting has become an integral part of local livelihoods in the study area, and on average contributes c. 74% of household cash income. The majority of harvesters perceived that harvesting had become more difficult during 2010–2015 as a result of competition and a decline in abundance of the species. The mean annual per capita harvest declined by 54 pieces during 2011–2015. Increasing harvesting and trade, coupled with the dependency of local communities on the fungus, may result in greater extraction of the resource for short-term economic benefits, and could eventually lead to depletion and ecological damage. Harvesting of the fungus has already created environmental, legal and social challenges, although it has become a lucrative livelihood opportunity. The ongoing decline of the fungus threatens local livelihoods. Good governance and livelihood security should be integrated with biodiversity conservation when devising government policies and plans for sustainable management of the caterpillar fungus.

Myths and Realities Surrounding the Mysterious Caterpillar Fungus

The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is a medicinal mushroom increasingly used as a dietary supplement for various health conditions, including fatigue, chronic inflammation, and male impotence. Here, we propose strategies to address the existing challenges related to the study and commercial production of this mysterious fungus.

Economic dependence of mountain communities on Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (yarsagumba): a case from western Nepal

AbstractProducts obtained from forests or other natural environments play a crucial role in sustaining the livelihoods of poor people in developing countries through income generation and the creation of employment opportunities. Although studies have been carried out to evaluate the dependence of local livelihoods on environmental products, quantify the linkage between poverty and biodiversity, and assess the impacts of resource depletion on household economics, most have been focused geographically on the tropics. Our study was conducted in the mountain village of Jumla, Nepal, to quantify the economic contribution of Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (yarsagumba) to local households. Income from yarsagumba accounted for up to 65% of the total household cash income, on average, and its contribution was highest in the poorest households. It contributed to reducing income inequality by 38%, and the income was utilized to purchase food and clothes, celebrate festivals, pay for medical treatment and children's education, and for savings. There was a mean annual decline of 25 pieces in the per capita harvest of yarsagumba during 2010–2014. However, the decline had no adverse impact on household income, as the price increased.

English

English

Isolation, Culture and Characterization of Hirsutella sinensis Mycelium from Caterpillar Fungus Fruiting Body.

The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (previously called Cordyceps sinensis) has been used for centuries in Asia as a tonic to improve health and longevity. Recent studies show that O. sinensis produces a wide range of biological effects on cells, laboratory animals and humans, including anti-fatigue, anti-infection, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor activities. In view of the rarity of O. sinensis fruiting bodies in nature, cultivation of its anamorph mycelium represents a useful alternative for large-scale production. However, O. sinensis fruiting bodies harvested in nature harbor several fungal contaminants, a phenomenon that led to the isolation and characterization of a large number of incorrect mycelium strains. We report here the isolation of a mycelium from a fruiting body of O. sinensis and we identify the isolate as O. sinensis’ anamorph (also called Hirsutella sinensis) based on multi-locus sequence typing of several fungal genes (ITS, nrSSU, nrLSU, RPB1, RPB2, MCM7, β-tubulin, TEF-1α, and ATP6). The main characteristics of the isolated mycelium, including its optimal growth at low temperature (16°C) and its biochemical composition, are similar to that of O. sinensis fruiting bodies, indicating that the mycelium strain characterized here may be used as a substitute for the rare and expensive O. sinensis fruiting bodies found in nature.

The intronic minisatellite OsMin1 within a serine protease gene in the Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Repetitive DNA sequences make up a significant portion of all genomes and may occur in intergenic, regulatory, coding, or even intronic regions. Partial sequences of a serine protease gene csp1 was previously used as a population genetic marker of the Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, but its first intron region was excluded due to ambiguous alignment. Here in this study, we report the presence of a minisatellite OsMin1 within this intron, where a 20(19)-bp repeat motif is duplicated two to six times in different isolates. Fourteen intron alleles and 13 OsMin1 alleles were identified among 125 O. sinensis samples distributed broadly on the Tibetan Plateau. Two OsMin1 alleles were prevalent, corresponding to either two or five repeats of the core sequence motif. OsMin1 appears to be a single locus marker in the O. sinensis genome, but its origin is undetermined. Abundant recombination signals were detected between upstream and downstream flanking regions of OsMin1, suggesting that OsMin1 mutate by unequal crossing over. Geographic distribution, fungal phylogeny, and host insect phylogeny all significantly affected intron distribution patterns but with the greatest influence noted for fungal genotypes and the least for geography. As far as we know, OsMin1 is the first minisatellite found in O. sinensis and the second found in fungal introns. OsMin1 may be useful in designing an efficient protocol to discriminate authentic O. sinensis from counterfeits.

De novo transcriptome analysis of Thitarodes jiachaensis before and after infection by the caterpillar fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Thitarodes jiachaensis is a host species of the pathogenic caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, which is a fungus with broad medical effects and great economic value. Curated genomic information on Thitarodes is still limited, and the interaction between host Thitarodes larvae and O. sinensis during infection is incompletely understood. In this study, we performed transcriptome sequencing for T. jiachaensis before and after O. sinensis infection using the Illumina sequencing platform, and we identified the transcripts associated with the defense response of T. jiachaensis upon O. sinensis infection. A total of 161,804 transcripts and 94,827 unigenes for T. jiachaensis were obtained from 26.62-Gb clean reads, and 35.03% of all the unigenes were annotated in current databases. The expression of 1581 genes was significantly altered following infection; among them, 928 (58.70%) were up-regulated and 653 (41.30%) were down-regulated. Genes encoding physical barriers such as cuticle proteins and peritrophic matrix proteins, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), and enzymes in the proteolytic cascade were predicted to be involved in the response of T. jiachaensis to O. sinensis infection. Together, these data provide a valuable genomic resource for further studies of Thitarodes and increase our understanding of the host-pathogen interaction that occurs between Thitarodes and O. sinensis.

Genetic Diversity and Distribution Patterns of Host Insects of Caterpillar Fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is one of the most valuable medicinal fungi in the world, and it requires host insects in family Hepialidae (Lepidoptera) to complete its life cycle. However, the genetic diversity and phylogeographic structures of the host insects remain to be explored. We analyzed the genetic diversity and temporal and spatial distribution patterns of genetic variation of the host insects throughout the O. sinensis distribution. Abundant haplotype and nucleotide diversity mainly existed in the areas of Nyingchi, ShangriLa, and around the edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, where are considered as the diversity center or micro-refuges of the host insects of O. sinensis. However, there was little genetic variation among host insects from 72.1% of all populations, indicating that the host species composition might be relatively simple in large-scale O. sinensis populations. All host insects are monophyletic except for those from four O. sinensis populations around Qinghai Lake. Significant phylogeographic structure (NST>GST, P<0.05) was revealed for the monophyletic host insects, and the three major phylogenetic groups corresponded with specific geographical areas. The divergence of most host insects was estimated to have occurred at ca. 3.7 Ma, shortly before the rapid uplift of the QTP. The geographical distribution and star-like network of the haplotypes implied that most host insects were derived from the relicts of a once-widespread host that subsequently became fragmented. Neutrality tests, mismatch distribution analysis, and expansion time estimation confirmed that most host insects presented recent demographic expansions that began ca. 0.118 Ma in the late Pleistocene. Therefore, the genetic diversity and distribution of the present-day insects should be attributed to effects of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau uplift and glacial advance/retreat cycles during the Quaternary ice age. These results provide valuable information to guide the protection and sustainable use of these host insects as well as O. sinensis.

Comparative phylogenetic relationships and genetic structure of the caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis and its host insects inferred from multiple gene sequences

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycota: Ophiocordycipitaceae) is a native fungal parasite of Hepialidae caterpillars and one of the most economically important medicinal caterpillar fungi in China. However, little is known about the phylogenetic and evolutionary relationships between O. sinensis and its host insects. In this study, nuclear ITS and β-tubulin sequences from O. sinensis and mitochondrial COI, COII, and Cytb sequences from its hosts were analyzed across 33 populations sampled from five regions in China. Phylogenetically, both O. sinensis and its hosts were divided into three geographically correlated clades, and their phylogenies were congruent. Analysis of molecular variance and calculated coefficients of genetic differentiation revealed significant genetic divergence among the clades within both O. sinensis (F(ST)= 0.878, N(ST)=0.842) and its hosts (F(ST)=0.861, N(ST)=0.816). Estimated gene flow was very low for O. sinensis (Nm=0.04) and the host insects (Nm=0.04) among these three clades. Mantel tests demonstrated a significant correlation (P<0.01) between the genetic distances for O. sinensis and its hosts, as well as a significant association (P<0.05) between geographic and genetic distances in both. The similar phylogenetic relationships, geographic distributions, and genetic structure and differentiation between O. sinensis and its hosts imply that they have coevolved.

Fungal gold and firewood on the Tibetan plateau: examining access to diverse ecosystem provisioning services within a rural community

AbstractProvisioning ecosystem services include wild products that form an integral part of rural economies. Using quantitative and qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with 50 households in a Tibetan community in Western Sichuan, China, we explored the relationships of households with three diverse provisioning services on the Eastern Tibetan plateau: firewood, medicinal caterpillar fungusOphiocordyceps sinensisand matsutake mushroomsTricholoma matsutake. We examined (1) how they contribute to wealth and livelihoods, (2) what determines household access, and (3) how local use has changed over time. All households were reliant on firewood, and levels extracted were explained only by household size. A more complex set of factors explained access to caterpillar fungus: younger, larger, pastoralist households with lower dependency ratios tended to collect more, and education and household size explained variation in price gained for the product. Caterpillar fungus extraction has dramatically increased over the last 20 years, providing up to 72% of household income, but poorer households have received significantly less of their income from the fungus. Matsutake contributed much less to livelihoods because of its relatively low price. The results show a contrast between subsistence and market-driven products: access to the latter is affected by competition and power relationships. Overall access to provisioning services was related to facets of wealth, especially human capital. The study contributes a household level analysis of the diverse provisioning value of an under-researched part of the world, highlighting the heterogeneity and dynamism of the relationships of households with ecosystem services.

Genome survey uncovers the secrets of sex and lifestyle in caterpillar fungus

The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (best known as Cordyceps sinensis) mummifies ghost moth larvae exclusively in Tibetan Plateau alpine ecosystems. Touted as “Himalayan Viagra”, the fungus is highly prized due to its medical benefits and dwindling supplies. Attempts to culture the sexual fruiting-body have failed and the huge market demand has led to severe devastation of local ecosystems and to the fungus heading towards extinction. By genome sequencing, we establish that unlike related insect pathogens O. sinensis contains two compatible mating-type genes in its genome and is self-fertile, i.e. homothallic. However, sexual processes are only initiated under native environmental conditions. O. sinensis resembles biotrophic plant pathogens in having a genome shaped by retrotransposon-driven expansions. The resulting changes in gene content suggest that O. sinensis has a biphasic pathogenic mechanism beginning with stealth pathogenesis in early host instars. O. sinensis is the first psychrophilic fungus sequenced and is adapted to extreme cold with putative antifreeze proteins and mechanisms for increasing lipid accumulation and fatty acid unsaturation. We hypothesize that for the inbreeding O. sinensis the massive proliferation of retrotransposons provides a tradeoff between the advantages of increased genetic variation independent of sexual recombination and deletion of genes dispensable for its specialized pathogenic lifestyle.

A Systematic Review of the Mysterious Caterpillar Fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis in DongChongXiaCao (冬蟲夏草 Dōng Chóng Xià Cǎo) and Related Bioactive Ingredients

The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn.Cordyceps sinensis), which was originally used in traditional Tibetan and Chinese medicine, is called either "yartsa gunbu" or "DongChongXiaCao ( Dōng Chóng Xià Cǎo)" ("winter worm-summer grass"), respectively. The extremely high price of DongChongXiaCao, approximately USD $20,000 to 40,000 per kg, has led to it being regarded as "soft gold" in China. The multi-fungi hypothesis has been proposed for DongChongXiaCao; however, Hirsutella sinensis is the anamorph of O. sinensis. In Chinese, the meaning of "DongChongXiaCao" is different for O. sinensis, Cordyceps spp., and Cordyceps sp. Over 30 bioactivities, such as immunomodulatory, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities, have been reported for wild DongChongXiaCao and for the mycelia and culture supernatants of O. sinensis. These bioactivities derive from over 20 bioactive ingredients, mainly extracellular polysaccharides, intracellular polysaccharides, cordycepin, adenosine, mannitol, and sterols. Other bioactive components have been found as well, including two peptides (cordymin and myriocin), melanin, lovastatin, γ-aminobutyric acid, and cordysinins. Recently, the bioactivities of O. sinensis were described, and they include antiarteriosclerosis, antidepression, and antiosteoporosis activities, photoprotection, prevention and treatment of bowel injury, promotion of endurance capacity, and learning-memory improvement. H. sinensis has the ability to accelerate leukocyte recovery, stimulate lymphocyte proliferation, antidiabetes, and improve kidney injury. Starting January 1(st), 2013, regulation will dictate that one fungus can only have one name, which will end the system of using separate names for anamorphs. The anamorph name "H. sinensis" has changed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants to O. sinensis.