Catastrophic Storm Events Research Articles

The missing link in New Jersey’s Hurricane Sandy recovery: Land use management

Hurricane Sandy devastated New Jersey with record storm surge, coastal erosion and inundation, widespread flooding, and associated property damage. The federal response to this catastrophic storm event was swift, with passage of a supplemental appropriation bill in excess of $60 billion to facilitate response and recovery. In New Jersey, hurricane recovery included a range of positive mitigation actions, including structural elevation of residential and smaller commercial buildings, property acquisitions, restoration of natural resources, enhanced construction standards, and large-scale beach nourishment. However, New Jersey’s recovery plan promoted quick rebuilding without consideration of long-term storm vulnerability concerns, and without fully understanding the cause of damages and appropriate land use management actions that could mitigate future storm and flood damages. There was a conspicuous absence of land use planning and management strategies in the context of future conditions of increasing sea level rise, chronic coastal erosion and increasing risk to people and property. This deficiency represents a significant gap in New Jersey’s Hurricane Sandy recovery and a missed opportunity to address a long-standing vulnerability.

Soil Arthropod Community in Spruce Forests (Picea abies) Affected by a Catastrophic Storm Event

At the end of October 2018, the “Vaia” storm hit the eastern sector of the Italian Alps, causing major damage to forests. The resulting changes in habitat and resource availability are expected to shape the structure and abundance of soil communities. In this research, a soil arthropod community is studied one year after the catastrophic Vaia event in forests affected by the storm (W: Windthrow) to highlight the shift in the soil faunal community in a Mediterranean area increasingly impacted by climate change. Intact forests (IF) close to W were studied as a control condition and meadows (M) were considered to understand if W is moving toward a conversion to M or if the wooded character still prevails. Soil organic matter content was higher in IF than in W and M. The arthropod community was different between M and forests, both W and IF, while no differences were detected between W and IF considering the whole soil arthropod community. The Vaia catastrophic event does not appear to have radically changed the soil arthropod community and biodiversity after one year, despite upheaval to the vegetation cover, but the response is partially OTU (operative taxonomic unit)-specific. Hymenoptera adults and Coleoptera and Diptera larvae appear to be the most affected OTUs, showing lower abundance in W than IF. Conversely, Chilopoda seemed to benefit from the habitat changes, the result strongly related with the W condition. The two most present OTUs, Collembola and Acarina, were not affected by the Vaia storm. We may conclude that the soil system needs longer time to show a clear shift in the soil arthropod community.

In Support of Sustainability: The Historical Ecology of Vertebrate Biodiversity and Native American Harvest Practices in the Florida Keys, USA

The Florida Keys are currently experiencing unprecedented loss of lifeways, biodiversity, and cultural heritage due to sea-level rise, catastrophic storm events, unsustainable traditions of resource exploitation, and land development. Yet, these islands have a long history of human occupation and socioecological systems underlying their current sustainability crisis that date back at least 2500 years. Here we report early results of ongoing zooarchaeological research from Upper Matecumbe Key designed to explore anthropogenic engagement with vertebrate fauna between AD 800 and 1250, providing an approximately 500-year window on marine fisheries and terrestrial faunal harvesting for this small island archipelago. Focusing on one of the few remaining, nearly intact Native American archaeological sites in the region, our research contributes to critically needed long-term anthropogenic perspectives on harvest patterns relevant to regional biodiversity conservation and sustainability initiatives.

Identification of sprinkling storage facilities for windblown timber using a GIS-based modeling approach

Description of the subject. After catastrophic storm events, the storage of windblown timber is an effective measure for mitigating economic losses in the forest sector by preventing wood decay, protecting stands from secondary damage, and regulating the timber supply in the middle and long term. Objectives. In this study, we first propose a GIS-based methodology for identifying suitable sprinkling storage terminals in Wallonia (Belgium). In addition, we suggest an approach for building a coherent regional network as well as methods for selecting and activating terminals within this network after a storm, depending on the severity and distribution of the damage. Method. The GIS-based approach was used to crosscheck technical requirements related to sprinkling storage according to operational and environmental constraints in the Ardenne, which is the most forested sub-region of Wallonia. A three-step process was employed to identify suitable areas. Nine procurement areas were also delineated according to the regional forest inventory plots as a reference for choosing the terminals that should be included in the regional network and activated after the storm. Results. We generated and evaluated 96 scenarios. In the second step, a network of 30 terminals was suggested, which corresponded to a storage capacity of 4 million m³. This network could facilitate the flexibility in the strategic management of storage after huge storms. The procurement area approach also helps addressing routing and transportation issues in a simple way. Conclusions. The GIS approach facilitates the selection of sprinkling storage terminals, but field validation and enhanced collaboration between public and private landowners and forest owners would still be needed.

Porosity: Networking Cities for a Changing Climate

On October 28th 2013 Hurricane Sandy hit land on the East Coast of the United States. The deadliest storm to hit the country since 2005 it caused tens of billions of dollars in damage, destroyed thousands of homes, left millions without electric service, and caused 117 deaths in the United States, including 53 in New York, making Sandy the most life costly hurricane to hit the United States mainland since Hurricane Katrina. In all an estimated 186 people were killed across the United States, the Caribbean, and Canada. In the immediate aftermath of the storm not only did the emergency services, state and federal government implement emergency plans of action, including both direct intervention on the ground and massive financial support, so too did a number of charities, community and residents groups across the US. One of the most surprising of these groups was what became known as Occupy Sandy. As noted by the Homeland Security Studies and Analysis Institute: “Within hours of Sandy’s landfall, members from the Occupy Wall Street movement used social media to tap the wider Occupy network for volunteers and aid. Overnight, a volunteer army of young, educated, tech-savvy individuals with time and a desire to help others emerged. In the days, weeks, and months that followed, “Occupy Sandy” became one of the leading humanitarian groups providing relief to survivors across New York City and New Jersey. At its peak, it had grown to an estimated 60,000 volunteers—more than four times the number deployed by the American Red Cross.” What this phenomenon clearly demonstrates is the potential for digital networking to improve response to catastrophic storm events at a community level. Far from being solely a question of material support and logistics, the response to the disaster was one equally definable as digital. Pointing to the possible rethinking of issues around the extreme and localised consequences of climate change and responses to it in purely traditional infrastructural terms, the social media focused organisation of Occupy Sandy potentially offers us a new frame of reference to deal with these, and less catastrophic issues around climate change and our response to it. This paper provides a discussion of the projected impacts of global environmental change in urban environments in the United States, with a particular focus on their impact on existing storm and sanitary water infrastructure. However, it theorizes a new approach to this archaic system of infrastructure that exploits social networking tools and digital technologies to build greater networks for climate change resilience across the United States and, by extension, elsewhere.

Site factors are more important than salvage logging for tree regeneration after wind disturbance in Central European forests

Wind disturbance is the main natural driver of forest dynamics in Central and Northern Europe, but little is known regarding the general patterns of tree regeneration following windthrow in this region. On the basis of 89 windthrow gaps, we quantified natural tree regeneration 10 and 20years after wind disturbance, and identified the factors influencing tree regeneration dynamics, with a special emphasis on the post-storm management practices “salvage logging” and “no intervention”. The sample encompasses gaps of ⩾3ha and total overstory mortality caused by wind disturbance. The gaps date back to the two catastrophic storm events Vivian in 1990 and Lothar in 1999. Gaps covered an ecologically diverse region extending over 20,000km2 and ranging from 370 to 1780ma.s.l. on the Central Plateau and in the Alps of Switzerland (Central Europe). Regeneration status was assessed on six circular sample plots per windthrow gap in 2010/2011. We recorded soil pH, organic layer, post-windthrow treatment, elevation, aspect, slope, browsing damage, and presence of predominant vegetation cover. We compared regeneration density and composition in gaps with and without salvage logging and elucidated the most important environmental factors influencing tree regeneration after wind disturbance using generalized linear models (GLMs). Ten and twenty years after wind disturbance, late-successional tree species such as beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) frequently dominated, independent of the post-storm treatment. Salvage logging did not negatively affect pre-storm regeneration and even positively influenced post-storm tree regeneration. GLMs revealed soil pH (+) and ground vegetation cover (−) to be the most important predictors of sapling density. The findings demonstrate that site factors have a stronger effect than post-storm treatment.

The Mediterranean Benthic Herbivores Show Diverse Responses to Extreme Storm Disturbances

Catastrophic storms have been observed to be one of the major elements in shaping the standing structure of marine benthic ecosystems. Yet, little is known about the effect of catastrophic storms on ecosystem processes. Specifically, herbivory is the main control mechanism of macrophyte communities in the Mediterranean, with two main key herbivores: the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus and the fish Sarpa salpa. Consequently, the effects of extreme storm events on these two herbivores (at the population level and on their behaviour) may be critical for the functioning of the ecosystem. With the aim of filling this gap, we took advantage of two parallel studies that were conducted before, during and after an unexpected catastrophic storm event. Specifically, fish and sea urchin abundance were assessed before and after the storm in monitored fixed areas (one site for sea urchin assessment and 3 sites for fish visual transects). Additionally, we investigated the behavioural response to the disturbance of S. salpa fishes that had been tagged with acoustic transmitters. Given their low mobility, sea urchins were severely affected by the storm (ca. 50% losses) with higher losses in those patches with a higher density of sea urchins. This may be due to a limited availability of refuges within each patch. In contrast, fish abundance was not affected, as fish were able to move to protected areas (i.e. deeper) as a result of the high mobility of this species. Our results highlight that catastrophic storms differentially affect the two dominant macroherbivores of rocky macroalgal and seagrass systems due to differences in mobility and escaping strategies. This study emphasises that under catastrophic disturbances, the presence of different responses among the key herbivores of the system may be critical for the maintenance of the herbivory function.

The impact of a catastrophic storm event on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in upland headwater streams and potential implications for ecological diversity and assessment of ecological status

Upland headwater streams are dynamic systems, responding rapidly to changes in climatic conditions. This study examined the effects of a catastrophic rainfall event, that occured on 24 October 2011 on the east coast of Ireland, on the macroinvertebrate community composition and structure of four headwater streams in the river Liffey catchment located in the Wicklow Mountains. The ecological status before and after the storm were also evaluated. The water level and pH of each stream were recorded using continuous monitoring equipment, while rainfall data for the study period were sourced from a local weather station. Benthic macroinvertebrates were investigated before and after the storm event using Surber sampling. Results showed rapid and large increases in water level and significant declines in stream pH in response to intensive rainfall during the storm. The high water levels also caused major physical damage and abrasion in all four streams, that significantly altered instream habitats. The storm event induced significant losses to the richness and/or density of most taxonomic groups, with the exception of the Plecoptera. Furthermore, the overall community composition and structure changed significantly, most likely as a result of physical disturbance, given the relative persistence of acid-sensitive taxa and the relatively short period of harsh acidic conditions (<5 pH). Interestingly however, the ecological status of each of the four study sites, tested using Stream Risk Score (SSRS), Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) and the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) indices, was unaltered by the loss in richness and densities. This was likely a result of the maintenance of plecopteran richness and the absence of organic pollution, thus highlighting the need to develop appropriate indices to assess the ecological status of streams and rivers affected by physical disturbance caused by large storm events. Ultimately, catastrophic storm events in upland headwater streams have potentially major implications for the maintanence of regional macroinvertebrate diversity within affected regions.

The impact of a catastrophic storm event on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in upland headwater streams and potential implications for ecological diversity and assessment of ecological status

Upland headwater streams are dynamic systems, responding rapidly to changes in climatic conditions. This study examined the effects of a catastrophic rainfall event, that occured on 24 October 2011 on the east coast of Ireland, on the macroinvertebrate community composition and structure of four headwater streams in the river Liffey catchment located in the Wicklow Mountains. The ecological status before and after the storm were also evaluated. The water level and pH of each stream were recorded using continuous monitoring equipment, while rainfall data for the study period were sourced from a local weather station. Benthic macroinvertebrates were investigated before and after the storm event using Surber sampling. Results showed rapid and large increases in water level and significant declines in stream pH in response to intensive rainfall during the storm. The high water levels also caused major physical damage and abrasion in all four streams, that significantly altered instream habitats. The storm event induced significant losses to the richness and/or density of most taxonomic groups, with the exception of the Plecoptera. Furthermore, the overall community composition and structure changed significantly, most likely as a result of physical disturbance, given the relative persistence of acid-sensitive taxa and the relatively short period of harsh acidic conditions (<5 pH). Interestingly however, the ecological status of each of the four study sites, tested using Stream Risk Score (SSRS), Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) and the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) indices, was unaltered by the loss in richness and densities. This was likely a result of the maintenance of plecopteran richness and the absence of organic pollution, thus highlighting the need to develop appropriate indices to assess the ecological status of streams and rivers affected by physical disturbance caused by large storm events. Ultimately, catastrophic storm events in upland headwater streams have potentially major implications for the maintanence of regional macroinvertebrate diversity within affected regions.

Probable late Messinian tsunamiites near Monte Dei Corvi, Italy, and the Nijar Basin, Spain: expected architecture of offshore tsunami deposits

Three distinct, 30- to 80-cm-thick, graded, multilayered, coarse-grained sandstone layers, intercalated in the late Messinian mudstones of the Colombacci formation in Lago Mare facies of the Trave section are interpreted as tsunamiites (Ts1–Ts3). Each of these layers is sheet-like and could be followed along strike over several tens of meters. The lower two layers (Ts1–Ts2) occur in the lower part of the Colombacci formation and the third (Ts3) just below a conspicuous white “colombacci” limestone near the top of the formation. The three sandstone layers represent unique sedimentary events within the 120-m-thick San Donato-Colombacci mudstones, which contain many thin, fine-grained, possibly storm-related turbidites. Each of the three clastic layers is overall graded and strongly cross-bedded. A single layer consists of a stack of several graded sublayers that are eroded into the underlying mudstones and into each other. Absence of hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) indicates that the layers are not produced during a large, catastrophic storm event. Current ripples such as dm-sized trough cross-beds suggest strong, prolonged, unidirectional currents, capable of carrying coarse conglomeratic sands. Climbing ripples in middle-fine sand units indicate a high suspension load settling under waning current strength. Each of the Ts1–Ts3 beds satisfies a combination of criteria, described in this paper, that allow interpretation as a tsunamiite in an offshore environment. Tsunamiite Ts2 is underlain by a 15-cm-thick meshwork of synsedimentary fissures, filled with coarse sand. Ground movements induced by strong earthquakes probably caused these crevasses. The uniqueness of each layer, the erosion of the base of each of the sublayers into underlying mudstones and previously deposited sublayer and the consistent stacking of graded sandstone beds within each of the three layers, underlain by earthquake-produced fissures, strongly point to deposition by traction currents produced by the surges of a large tsunami event, triggered by a large vertical fault movements. Vertical fault displacements most likely occurred along the thrust faults like the Sibilline thrust at the SW of the Laga foreland basin, which were active at late Messinian times. A series of cyclic graded turbidites, underlain by seismically induced sand-filled fissures in the Late Messinian Feos formation in SE Spain, are interpreted as tsunamiites produced by a tsunami or seiche.

Geographical Distribution of Weather Catastrophes in the United States

In the 1949-2008 data period, the nation experienced 1,506 storm catastrophes (each causing losses of $1 million or more), and these caused insured losses totaling $368.1 billion. Catastrophes were most frequent in the eastern half of the nation, as were their losses, with 82% of catastrophes there and 91% of the nation's losses. The highest regional loss for 1949-2008 was $147.5 billion in the Southeast. Regional ranks based on average losses differed from those based on the 60-year frequency of catastrophes. The distributions of catastrophes and their losses were examined for the three 20-year periods during 1949-2008. The first period, 1949-1968, had fewer catastrophes in most regions than the two later periods, with less than 20% of the total catastrophes. In six regions, average losses per catastrophe were highest in the period 1949-1968, while average losses were highest in 1989-2008 in the Central, Southeast, and Southwest regions. In all but the Southwest region, average storm losses were lowest in the 1969-1988 period. The results reflect spatial and temporal differences in the atmospheric conditions that cause catastrophic storm events. The shift to much higher losses in the Southeast since 1990 reflects recent enhancement of intense tropical storms. The nation's eastern half also had its greatest number of catastrophes in this recent period. There is also evidence that these recent increases are a result of enhanced societal vulnerability to storm damages.

Organic and metal contamination in surface mangrove sediments of South China

Mangrove forests, the intertidal wetlands of the tropics and subtropics, are key ecological habitats that link terrestrial and marine environments. Mangrove forests and adjacent mudflats are increasingly impacted by urban/industrial development in the tropical coastal zone, suffering pollution from multiple sources including but not limited to municipal waste, aquaculture, mariculture and shipping as well as onshore industries and run-off from urban centres (Cuong et al. 2005; Huang et al. 2003; Zheng et al. 2000). Sediments that accumulate in mangroves are potential repositories of anthropogenic pollution because of high total organic carbon content, anaerobic properties and rapid turnover and burial (Marchand et al. 2005; Tam and Yao, 2002). The world wide denigration and loss of mangrove habitats is of global concern given they account for an estimated 11 % of the input of terrestrially-derived carbon into the ocean and about 10 % dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sourced from land; the long term effect of altering the carbon cycle is uncertain (Dittmar et al. 2006; Jennerjahn and Ittekkot, 2002). It has been widely postulated that mangroves afford physical protection against catastrophic storm events such as hurricanes and tsunamis (Alongi, 2007). Recent post-impact surveys along the Tamil Nadu coast follwing the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami confirmed this notion and demonstrated that man-made structures built behind mangroves were significantly less damaged than their unprotected counterparts (Alongi, 2007).

Arsenic and Lead Contamination in Wash Sediments at Historic Three Kids Mine – Henderson, Nevada: The Environmental Hazards Associated with Historic Mining Sites and Their Possible Impact on Water Quality

This study focuses on the distribution of arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) in surface sediments at Three Kids Mine located in Henderson, Nevada. The mine is comprised of approximately 470 acres of desert and is situated above the large development of Lake Las Vegas and the Las Vegas Valleys water supply, Lake Mead. Transport of arsenic and lead appears to have occurred within a limited range in both the eastern and western washes of Three Kids Mine. Concentrations of arsenic and lead range between 200 ppm and1130 ppm and 20 ppm and 8400 ppm, respectfully, in soils collected from washes at Three Kids Mine. Samples collected from the north side of the site indicate a mixing of the natural soils which are low in arsenic and lead with milling waste from historic mining practices, which are higher in arsenic and lead concentrations. The migration of arsenic and lead apparently resulted from the transport of sediments containing these contaminants down gradient in surface runoff during storm events. Adsorption of arsenic and lead onto the surface of soil particles is postulated to be the major source of transport during wet periods for this site. As a result, transport of arsenic and lead from historic Three Kids Mine could possibly pose a threat to Lake Las Vegas and Lake Mead if a catastrophic storm event or repeated storm events were to occur within a short period of time.

Reconstruction of paleostorm events in a coastal lagoon (Hérault, South of France)

Finding records of past catastrophic storm events is essential to evaluate the long term climatic evolution in a given coastal area. This question has been addressed by the study of sediment cores sampled in a small coastal lagoon of the French Mediterranean coast (Pierre Blanche lagoon). Two cores were studied in detail and revealed the presence of three main storm events. The sedimentation rates calculated using the CFCS 210Pb model, in agreement with 137Cs data, are 3 ± 0 .4 and 4 .2 ± 0 .7 mm y − 1 near the border and in the center of the lagoon respectively. This suggests that the 0.6 m deep lagoon could be filled with sediments over the next 150 yr. Our study shows that storm events can be characterized in sedimentary sequences identified by facies, grain size and faunal assemblages (lagoonal and marine species). Comparison of 210Pb, 14C chronology and historical accounts suggest that the three identified storm events took place in 1742, 1839 and 1893 A.D. (i.e. about one catastrophic event per century).

Protective capacity of mangroves during tropical storms: a case study from ‘Wilma’ and ‘Gamma’ in Belize

Globally threatened mangrove forest habitat is often considered an important buffer protecting coastlines from wave and storm impacts and coastal erosion. However, there is little empirical data quantifying the protective effects of mangroves during storms, primarily because of the difficulty of predicting where and when a storm will intersect the shoreline, to facilitate data collection before and after storm events. In 2005, opportunistic results from an ongoing study quanti- fying differences between intact and cleared mangrove areas on Turneffe Atoll, Belize, provided such pre- and post-storm data from tropical storms 'Wilma' (later a Category 5 Hurricane) and 'Gamma'. We compared differences in equipment retention rates of 3 types of experimental devices previously installed in adjacent intact and cleared mangrove areas. Retention rates were greater in intact mangrove areas, empirically demonstrating the protective capacity of mangroves during moderate magnitude storm events. The results support the assumption that removal of mangroves diminishes coastal protection not only during catastrophic storm events such as hurricanes or tsunamis, but also during less energetic but more frequent events, such as tropical storms. This high- lights the importance of improved coastal zone management, as storm events may increase in frequency and intensity with changing climate, and coastal mangrove forest habitats continue to decline in size and number.

Tunnel development over a 12 year period in a semi‐arid catchment of the Loess Plateau, China

AbstractThe tunnel systems in a semi‐arid catchment of the Loess Plateau of China were repeatedly surveyed prior to the rainy seasons of 1989, 1999 and 2001. The surveys aimed to: (1) measure tunnel development over the 12 year period 1989–2001; (2) explore how the physiographical conditions affect the spatio‐temporal variability of tunnel development; and (3) to identify the geomorphic processes associated with tunnel development. The ultimate goal was to quantify the geomorphic significance of tunnel systems in the catchment. Over the 12 year period, the number of tunnel inlets was more than doubled and most of the newly increased inlets were initiated in the few catastrophic storm events. However, tunnel enlargement can occur in storm or inter‐storm periods, mainly through earth falls and slumps in inlets, and water erosion and roof cave‐in collapses in tunnel paths. Tunnel development varied with material properties, land uses and topographic conditions. Net tunnel erosion may contribute at least 25–30% of the catchment sediment yield and was mainly produced by the initiation and enlargement of tunnel inlets rather than tunnel paths. To protect the areas against tunnel erosion, terracing of the upper slopes seems to be more effective than planting vegetation on the lower slopes. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Microbialites in a modern lagoonal environment: nature and distribution, Tikehau atoll (French Polynesia)

Microbialites, including stromatolitic structures, gelatinous masses and mats develop in Tikehau lagoon (Tuamotu, French Polynesia), on the flanks and slopes of numerous pinnacles and ‘motu’ islets between 0 and 25 m deep, on coral colonies, algal tufts or on lagoonal sediments. Individual stromatolitic structures consist of hemispherical domes and are produced by monospecific populations of filamentous cyanobacteria belonging to three distinctive Phormidium species, Symploca, and possibly to one new species of Schizothrix. Gelatinous masses hanging from the ceiling of caverns are produced by Phormidium laysanense. Microbial mats are well developed at all depths on pinnacle slopes and are produced by either monospecific or mixed cyanobacterial populations. The study of micro- and ultrastructure of stromatolites reveals that they result both from trapping and binding of sediments and from carbonate precipitation. In addition to phototrophic biomineralization, pervasive carbonate precipitation occurred in association with decaying organic matter. The basic constructional elements of the precipitated carbonate consist of 0.1–0.2-μm rounded bodies that form very fine anhedral to subhedral micrite; their surfaces comprise extremely small carbonate granules (20–50 nm). Gradual changes (ageing) in the ultrastructure of carbonate precipitates include the precipitation of successive euhedral calcite layers around these grains. Widespread development of microbialites in this pristine lagoonal environment results from rapid blooms of microbial benthic communities, possibly induced by temporary and local nutrient pulses. Nutrients seem to undergo a restricted circulation between the sediment and pinnacle reef frameworks. Pinnacles and reef islets are repeatedly affected by catastrophic storm events which cause redistribution of sediments and nutrients.

Evidence of Sea Level Rise at the Early Ostionan Coralie Site (GT-3), c. AD 700, Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos Islands

Soil and sediment analyses were conducted on samples from the early Ostionan Coralie Site (c.ad705±60) on Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos Islands, the earliest dated settlement site in the Bahama Islands. The focus of these analyses was a sand layer mantling archaeological features discovered on a buried land surface. The tapering, wedge-shaped configuration of the sand body prompted the hypothesis that it was deposited by water—either a storm surge or a more gradual rise in sea level. This hypothesis was tested using soil morphological descriptions, particle-size distribution analysis and grain characteristics, contents of organic carbon and total phosphorus, and identification of invertebrate organisms found in the soil samples. A fining upward trend in particle size, round and rolled grain shapes, and a rich shallow-water micro-invertebrate infauna indicated a gradual marine transgression over the site, as opposed to either a catastrophic storm event or aeolian deposition. These results explain the incremental inland shift of settlement activity over time at Coralie.

The New Catastrophism Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, xx + 231 pp., ISBN 0-521-42019-9, H/b £22.95, $34.95.

The New Catastrophism Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, xx + 231 pp., ISBN 0-521-42019-9, H/b £22.95, $34.95.