Carrageenan Production Research Articles

SYNTHESIS OF REFINED CARRAGEENAN FROM EUCHEUMA COTTONII WITH VARIATION OF PRECIPITATING SOLVENT

Red seaweed, Euchema cottonii, is a kappa carrageenan source that grows in Indonesia's coastal areas. Carrageenan is one of the polysaccharides composed entirely of D-galactopyranose units. Besides being used in the food industry, carrageenan is also used in the non-food industry, such as in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, printing, and textile formulations. Various studies have been carried out to produce high-quality Carrageenans. However, the extraction process of carrageenan is quite complicated, and relatively energy intensive. The primary step in carrageenan production is extraction, washing, filtration, precipitation, filtering, pressing, drying, and milling. This study aims to optimize the carrageenan extraction process from red seaweed and characterize the physicochemical of the extracted carrageenan. Red seaweed was extracted using 0.6% of KOH, and the ratio between seaweed and KOH solution was 1:20. Extraction temperature was varied at 30oC and 80oC, and several precipitants, i.e., 96% alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, and KCl were used. The results showed that the best carrageenan extraction process was at 80 oC of extraction temperature and using KCl as a precipitating solvent. From these results, the yield, water content, ash content, viscosity, and L value were 21.24%, 12.56%, 22.69%, 310.96 cP, and 97.93, respectively. Based on the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) standard, the physical properties of carrageenan produced in this study are under the range permitted by this standard. The study of carrageenans by FTIR spectroscopy shows the presence of S=O of sulfate ester; and C-O of 3,6-anhydrogalactose; galactose and D-galactose-4-sulfate and the results indicated that the carrageenan was κ-type.

Production of fermentable glucose from the hydrolysis process of cellulose algae waste using fungal cellulases

Kappaphycus alvarezii is the most widely cultivated algae species globally because of its main use in carrageenan production. Waste resulting from carrageenan production still contains high levels of cellulose, which is potentially convertible into fermentable sugar. However, the commercial viability of sugar conversion from algae waste is limited by the high cost of the hydrolysis required to break down the algae waste. This study aims to develop a new hydrolysis method, through the adoption of fungal algal cell disruption to produce a fermentable sugar. The fungus Trichoderma reseei was developed as a new pretreatment method. It was chosen for its superior inherent properties, including low chemical input and environmental friendliness. This study develops a method for fungal pretreatment of algae processing waste. We investigated the effects of substrate concentration, inoculum size, and reaction time on sugar production using full factorial design. The results showed that substrate concentration, inoculum size, and reaction time affect sugar production. This study demonstrates that sugar production from algae proccessing waste can reach more than 70% under optimum conditions. These results indicate the potential of microbial cellullase as an economically friendly pretreatment for sugar production from algae processing waste.

An Integrated Business Model Based on Linear Programming for Carrageenan Production Chain in Coastal Village

The blue economy concept is a development program that harmonizes economic growth, social equity, and a sustainable environment. In coastal villages, economic growth could be promoted by selecting a high-value and competitive local-based product, selecting a clean production process with renewable energy, proper waste management, and involving people who live in the coastal area. The research is carried out in Padike village, Talango district, Poteran island, Sumenep, East of Java supported by the vocational high school in Padike and the University of Wiraraja, Sumenep as a partnership institution, and involving people living in Poteran island. An integrated business model based on linear programming was designed to perform a carrageenan production chain that consists of modern seaweed cultivation farming, a high-quality seaweed drying dome, a clean carrageenan processing shop with zero waste management, and clean renewable energy. The model developed based on linear programming was run into 2 different scenarios. The first scenario focuses on the optimization in each production station and the second scenario focuses on the carrageenan production itself. From the different scenarios, we obtained that the second scenario resulted in an appealing opportunity. As a result, an integrated business model for managing the carrageenan production chain has been initiated, and as a practical example of the blue economy model which ensures the proper balance between economic growth, social equity, and a sustainable environment.

THE IMPACT OF ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL AND POTASSIUM CHLORIDE ON THE PRECIPITATION OF ENZYMATICALLY EXTRACTED CARRAGEENAN FROM Kappaphycus striatum

Growing evidence points to enzymatic carrageenan manufacturing as an eco-friendly process. This study examines the effects of varying enzyme concentrations (between 0.1% and 0.5%) and altering the precipitation process by combining KCl salt with isopropyl alcohol (IPA) on the qualitative characteristics of carrageenan products. Carrageenan extraction is made easier by cellulase, which breaks down the cellulose component of the seaweed wall. The precipitation process's use of KCl has a major impact on the gel's viscosity, water content, ash content, and sulfate content. The findings show that, compared to IPA alone, the addition of KCl alters the gel strength and sulfate content. Gel strength and viscosity are also highly influenced by different enzyme concentrations, where larger enzyme concentrations result in lower values. The rapid visco analyzer demonstrates improved gel formation and higher final viscosity values (113 cP at 0.1% enzyme usage) with the addition of KCl salt. This study sheds light on optimizing enzymatic carrageenan production for enhanced product quality and efficiency.

The effect of Temperature Drying of Seaweed, Addition of Calcium Hypochlorite, and Potassium Hydroxide on the Quality of Semi-Refined Carrageenan Products

The effect of Temperature Drying of Seaweed, Addition of Calcium Hypochlorite, and Potassium Hydroxide on the Quality of Semi-Refined Carrageenan Products

CONSUMER PREFERENCES OF BIODEGRADABLE TOTE BAG PRODUCTS FROM SEAWEED CARRAGEENAN (Eucheuma cottoni)

Biodegradable tote bag is a processed carrageenan product from seaweed (Eucheuma cottoni) which is processed into fashion products. Consumer preferences are used to see consumer choices in determining the most preferred attributes of biodegradable tote bag products. This study aimed to see consumer preferences for biodegradable tote bag products. This research was conducted in Cibinong District, Bogor Regency as a general segmentation and Jatinangor District, Sumedang Regency as a special segmentation. The research method used was quantitative descriptive with analysis using frequency distribution and the Mann-Whitney U Test. The sampling technique was purposive sampling. The results showed that, out of the 6 attri-butes, there were 2 attributes that had a real difference between general segmentation and student segmentation, namely color attributes and the size of biodegradable tote bag products. Meanwhile, the other 4 attributes have no noticeable difference, namely texture, aroma, water resistance, and weight durability. Consumer preferences in general segmentation and the majority of students choose biodegradable tote bags that have a dark green color, smooth texture, no aroma, resistant to water, the ability to withstand a weight of > 1 kg, and measuring 30 x 40 cm.

Genetic diversity of Kappaphycus malesianus (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) from the Philippines

Kappaphycus farming for carrageenan production is characterized by a strong selective pressure at the genetic level. Traits of agronomic importance are compromised due to domestication bottlenecks and the subsequent events of possible selective breeding of founding cultivars. Kappaphycus malesianus is farmed in Malaysia and the Philippines, and is distributed within the Malesian region. While the majority of genetically characterized specimens of this species are from Malaysia, those from the Philippines are poorly explored. Here, we assessed the genetic diversity of K. malesianus from the Philippines based on cox1 sequences. Of the 15 identified haplotypes, 14 specimens represent three novel haplotypes (wild specimens) that form a group distinct from the main clade comprising most K. malesianus haplotypes known to date. An additional haplotype from a cultivated specimen was identical to that of the most widely distributed haplotype. Our findings demonstrate that the K. malesianus is genetically more diverse than previously recognized. It is expected that higher genetic diversity may be revealed through additional sampling from a wider geographic range and careful application of integrative approaches. Future selective breeding programs in Kappaphycus would benefit from the incorporation of the genetic resources, as provided in this study.

Design of red chili commodity pricing using the BPMN approach and Sugeno's fuzzy inference system

Red chili is Indonesia's leading commodity. Red chili is a raw material for various food products, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and others. Fluctuations in the availability of red chili commodity supply affect the price of red chili commodity products. Pricing can occur because of supply and demand. Un­cer­tain conditions also influence pricing due to fluctuations in raw material prices, ultimately affecting the price of carrageenan products. This condition makes price determination very difficult. Therefore, this study aims to analyze and design a pricing mechanism and determine the optimal margin in the red chili commodity marketing system. This study uses a systems analysis and design approach. Input-process-output (IPO) diagrams describe system requirements. Industrial business processes are described by the Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) ver. 16.0. Meanwhile, to determine the optimal margin, Sugeno's fuzzy inference system approach is used by simulating the model in 3 margin scenarios: pessimistic, moderate, and optimistic. The simulation results were tested using the MAPE test, in which the results were compared between fuzzy price results and markup prices using markup values of 20%, 25%, and 30%. The analysis results show that the price is determined by demand and supply. The price obtained from the formulation of the Sugeno fuzzy model shows an optimal margin of Rp. 16,600.

Novel Technologies for Seaweed Polysaccharides Extraction and Their Use in Food with Therapeutically Applications-A Review.

The use of seaweed for therapeutic purposes is ancient, but only in the last decade, with advanced technologies, has it been possible to extract seaweed’s bioactive compounds and test their potential properties. Algal metabolites possess nutritional properties, but they also exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities, which allow them to be involved in several pharmaceutical applications. Seaweeds have been incorporated since ancient times into diets as a whole food. With the isolation of particular seaweed compounds, it would be possible to develop new types of food with therapeutically properties. Polysaccharides make up the majority of seaweed biomass, which has triggered an increase in interest in using seaweed for commercial purposes, particularly in the production of agar, carrageenan, and alginate. The bio-properties of polysaccharides are strictly dependent to their chemical characteristics and structure, which varies depending on the species, their life cycles, and other biotic and abiotic factors. Through this review, techniques for seaweed polysaccharides extraction are reported, with studies addressing the advantages for human health from the incorporation of algal compounds as dietary supplements and food additives.

Science Interventions for Sustainable Marine Products Production: The Case of Sardines and Seaweeds

This paper presents two cases of scientific interventions to address pressing sustainable production of marine products in the Philippines such as the sardine fishery and seaweed production. The Philippine sardine fishery accounts for about 25% of commercial and 11% of municipal fisheries. Due to dwindling catch, the biology, ecology, fish catch and environmental factors were investigated in Northern Zamboanga Peninsula where upwelling during the northeast monsoon supports a significant sardine population. The study resulted in a resource management program that remains adaptive and spatially explicit to ensure sustainability of the sardine fishery. On the other hand, the Philippine seaweed production contributes about 50% of the annual fishery production volume, of which 70% comes mainly from carrageenophytes or carrageenan-bearing seaweeds. Production of these seaweeds made the Philippines the world’s top supplier of the raw dried seaweed for carrageenan production until 2007 after which seaweed production for the carrageenan industry placed second only to a neighboring country. Government agencies and academic institutions, thus, initiated studies to improve the productivity of this marine plant. For sustainability, tissue culture techniques were developed, and gene and seedlings banks were established in strategic parts of the country to ensure continued supply of quality seaweed seedlings to the farmers. Philippine standard specifications for raw material and carrageenan were formulated to comply with international standards. Continued science interventions to marine fishery industries are called for and should be intensified to promote further the country’s progress.

Seasonal change in growth rate, carrageenan yield and quality from the red alga (Kappaphycus striatus) cultivated in Cam Ranh bay

The red alga Kappaphycus striatus was cultivated at Camranh Bay, KhanhHoa, Vietnam. For a 30 day cultivation period, the alga showed the higher growth rate (4.1 - 5.8 % day-1) from October 2014 to April 2015 and in September 2015, while the lower growth rate (2.5 - 3.1 % day-1) was found from May to August 2015. The carrageenan quality was done for a 60-day cultivation period, the carrageenan yield and gel strength showed little variation with the higher values (28.1 - 28.7 % and 855 - 935 g cm-2, respectively) obtained from November 2014 to March 2015 and lower ones (25.1 - 26.7 % and 555 - 758 g cm-2, respectively) from April to September 2015. The data on moisture content of alga (33.5 - 36.8 %), clean anhydrous algal/salt ratio (0.92 - 1.07), and carrageenan yield obtained in this study fulfilled those of standards for carrageenophytes. This study shows that the red alga K. striatus can be grown in the tropical waters of the Camranh Bay during the northeast monsoon and a part of the southwest monsoon as a source of materials for carrageenan production.

Physicochemical properties of semi-refined carrageenan by bleaching pretreatment

Judul: Sifat fisikokimia semi-refined carrageenan dengan bleaching pretreatment Title: Physicochemical properties of semi-refined carrageenan by bleaching pretreatment Produk semi refined carrageenan (SRC) merupakan hasil pengekstrakan alga merah dari tumbuhan lontar. Semi refined carrageenan merupakan salah satu unsur dalam Eucheuma cottonii. Karaginan merupakan sulfat galaktan yang berasal dari alga merah (Rhodophyta), tersusun dari D-galaktosa yang terikat secara dalam 5-007-1,3 ikatan β-1,4. Kondisi ekstraksi mempengaruhi kualitas produk karaginan semi murni. Kondisi ekstraksi seperti perlakuan awal, waktu, dan suhu ekstraksi sangat berpengaruh terhadap hasil produk SRC. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki sifat fisikokimia dari karaginan tyang diekstrak dari rumput laut merah yang telah dilakukan perlakuan awal pemutihan fisik. Hasil terbaik pada variasi waktu ekstraksi dan konsentrasi pelarut adalah pada suhu 80 o C pada 2 jam. Sifat fisikokimia karaginan yang paling baik adalah kekuatan gel 715 gram/cm 2 , kadar air 8%, kadar abu 18%, kadar sulfat 11%, viskositas tujuh cP, titik gel 47,7 o C, titik leleh 57,8 o C, tingkat putih 61%, dan tidak adanya logam berat dalam produk SRC. Analisis FTIR menunjukkan bahwa SRC yang diekstraksi sebagian besar terdiri dari kappa-karaginan. Metode atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) digunakan untuk menentukan kadar logam substansial dalam SRC, dan hasilnya memenuhi standar FAO. The semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) product is the result of extracting red algae from the palm plant. Semi refined carrageenan is one of the elements in Eucheuma cottonii. Carrageenan is a sulfated galactan derived from red algae (Rhodophyta), composed of D-galactose, which is deeply bonded 5-007-1.3 -1,4 bonds. Extraction conditions affect the quality of semi pure carrageenan products. Extraction conditions such as pretreatment, time, and extraction temperature significantly affect the yield of SRC products. This study aimed to investigate the physicochemical properties of carrageenan extracted from red seaweed, which had been pretreated with physical bleaching. The best results on the variation of extraction time and solvent concentration were at 80 o C at 2 hours. The best physicochemical properties of carrageenan are gel strength 715 gram/cm 2 , water content 8%, ash content 18%, sulfate content 11%, viscosity seven cP, gel point 47.7 o C, melting point 57.8 o C, whiteness 61%, and the absence of heavy metals in SRC products. FTIR analysis showed that the extracted SRC consisted mainly of kappa-carrageenan. The atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) method was used to determine the actual metal content in SRC, and the results met FAO standards.

Characterization of semi-refined kappa-carrageenan from Kappaphycus alvarezii with different solvents in Tanjung Sumenep

The quantity and quality of carrageenan produced is influenced by the method of extraction and the solvent. Characterization of the carrageenan products necessary to get certain standards so the carrageenan product acceptable to consumers both locally and internationally. The purpose of this research was to determine the solvents that can produce carrageenan from Kappaphycus alvarezii with the best characteristics and to compare the results of the extraction of carrageenan with international standards in order to obtain a standardized carrageenan. The results showed that the solvent produce a kappa-carrageenan from K. alvarezii with the best characteristics is NaOH 0.5 N. Kappa-carrageenan has been able to compared FAO, FCC and Marine Science Co., Ltd. standards for parameters : Gel strength, viscosity, sulfate content and ash content. Alkali able to extract and modify mu-carrageenan (precursor) into a kappa-carrageenan. The extraction process uses alkali caused the event ion exchange between cations in the solvent (K+ or Na+) ions with sulphate in the sea grass that reduced sulfate content. Need to do more research on the characterization of carrageenan include microbiological tests as well as the shelf life of carrageenan test.

Analysis on Product Quality of Semi Refined Carrageenan using Six Sigma and Cost of Poor Quality

The study aimed to minimize defective products to improve the production process quality of PT BI by identifying the most types of defects, calculating Defect per Million Opportunities (DPMO) value, suggesting the quality improvement of the Semi Refined Carrageenan (SRC) production process, and calculating Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) value. The methods used in this research were Six Sigma and the COPQ. The priority improvement based on the Pareto chart was moisture defects with the percentage of damage of 36.9%. The Sigma level of the production process of PT BI was 3.42 with a defect rate of 27,429 DPMO. The analysis on the cause and effect diagram showed that factors affected the occurrence of defective products were error in reading on moisture content, diverse raw material, the wrong method of mixing raw materials prior to production process, and the lack of inspectors of production process. The most influential-dominant factor was the obsolete machine which causes error in reading on moisture content. The company can take preventive and corrective actions to suppress defective products and improve product quality. Based on the calculation of the COPQ, the costs that must be incurred by the company due to defective products was IDR 1,007,690,694.

An optimised low‐salinity seawater decolourising method produces decolourised seaweed (Kappaphycuz alvarezii) as semi‐refined carrageenan raw material:

AbstractSemi‐refined carrageenan (SRC) production from decolourised Kappaphycuz alvarezii treated by chemicals (CaCO3) drives the search for ‘greener’ decolourisation methods to sustainably supply cheaper and energy efficient products. Therefore, a decolourisation method of low‐salinity seawater (LSS) (3, 9 and 15 g/L) was investigated to replace CaCO3. In addition, decolourised seaweed colour powder (DSP) and SRC colour, yield, viscosity and gel strength were used to screen the salinity treatments. SRC prepared from LSS (3 g/L) treatment demonstrated similar colour and physical properties to CaCO3 treatments, which indicated low‐salinity seawater (3 g/L) could replace CaCO3 as a decolourising agent. Moreover, purity of SRC (3 g/L salinity) were confirmed by x‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy‐energy‐dispersive x‐ray (SEM‐EDX), and its functional group by fourier transform infrared (FTIR). In this study, waste seawater from LSS (3 g/L) exhibited radical scavenging properties. This decolourising method could be easily adopted by smallholder seaweed farmers in low‐ and middle‐income countries.

Characterization of kappa-carageenan from the red alga Kappaphycus striatum

The red alga Kappaphycus striatum is an economically important species and extensively cultivated in Vietnam as a material source for carrageenan production. To evaluate carrageenan quality, the characterization of carrageenan extracted from this alga was investigated. As a result, chemical composition of carrageenan consists of 32.4% of 3,6 anhydrogalactose and 24.3% of sulfate. Gelling and metling temperatures are 34.4oC and 55.6oC, respectively. Gel strength of 1.5% is 615 g/cm2 and average molecular weight is about 267 kDa. Furthermore, FT-IR spectrum showed intense absorption bands at 930 cm-1 and 850 cm-1 that attributed to 1,4-linked 3,6 anhydro-α-D-galactose and 1,3-linked β-D-galactose-4-sulfate of kappa-carrageenan, respectively. 13C NMR spectrum indicated the signals for anomeric carbon of β-D-galactose-4-sulfate at 102.6 ppm and anomeric carbon of 3,6-anhydro-α-D-galactose at 95.3 ppm. 13H NMR spectrum showed peak signals at 3.57 ppm and 5.1 ppm that corresponds with O-methyl proton of 1,3-linked 6-O-methyl-D-galactose and α-anomeric proton of 3,6 anhydro-α-D-galactose residues, respectively. The results show that the carrageenan from the red alga Kappaphycus striatus is kappa-carrageenan with the repeating disaccharide unit consisting of 1,3-linked 6-O-methylated, β-D-galactose-4-sulfate and 1,4-linked 3,6 anhydro-α-D-galactose and did not contain iota-carrageenan. Therefore, this alga may promise to be a good source for carrageenan production for application in food or medicine.

Impact of elevated temperature on the physiological and biochemical responses of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta).

The eucheumatoids Kappaphycus and Eucheuma are cultivated in tropical or subtropical regions for the production of carrageenan, a hydrocolloid widely used in the food and cosmetic industries. Kappaphycus alvarezii is a highly valued economic crop in the Coral Triangle, with the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia ranked among the largest producers. In the absence of measures to mitigate climate change, extreme events including heatwaves, typhoons, severe El Niño and La Niña, are expected to increase in frequency and magnitude. This inadvertently brings adverse effects to the seaweed cultivation industry, especially in the tropics. Temperatures are rapidly reaching the upper limit of biologically tolerable levels and an increase in reports of ice-ice and pest outbreaks is attributable to these shifts of environmental parameters. Nevertheless, few reports on the response of eucheumatoids to a changing environment, in particular global warming, are available. Understanding the responses and possible mechanisms for acclimation to warming is crucial for a sustainable seaweed cultivation industry. Here, the physiological and biochemical responses of K. alvarezii to acute warming indicated that the strain used in the current study is unlikely to survive sudden increases in temperature above 36°C. As temperature increased, the growth rates, photosynthetic performance, phycocolloid quality (carrageenan yield, gel strength and gel viscosity) and pigment content (chlorophyll-a, carotenoid and phycobiliproteins) were reduced while the production of reactive oxygen species increased indicating the occurrence of stress in the seaweeds. This study provides a basis for future work on long term acclimation to elevated temperature and mesocosm-based multivariate studies to identify heat-tolerant strains for sustainable cultivation.

Analysis of probiotic characteristics and LAB viability of seaweed hydrolysis (Eucheuma cottonii)

Eucheuma cottoni is one of the most utilised marine commodities for carrageenan production. Carrageenan can also be used for probiotics production. This study aimed to obtain bacterial growth media with the highest probiotic activity before and after drying. The study consisted of several stages, include: pre-hydrolysis, hydrolysis with inactive enzymes, chemical and microbiological characterisation, drying with spray drying, and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) viability test. The results show that the untreated sample had the best results compared to that of the filtering and precipitation samples. The untreated sample had reducing sugar content of 0.35%, total sugar 2.81%, pH 5.37, total acid 0.147%, and total LAB of 8.2x108 CFU/mL. After drying with spray drying, the LAB viability reduced to 9.7x106 CFU/mL.

Bioethanol a by-product of agar and carrageenan production industry from the tropical red seaweeds, Gracilaria manilaensis and Kappaphycus alvarezii

Two red seaweeds, Gracilaria manilaensis and K. alvarezii are cultivated in Malaysia for producing agar and carrageenan respectively. The residues of these seaweeds after removing agar and carrageenan by dilute acid treatment were subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis using cellulase (Cellic CTec 2). In the optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis, highest glucose concentration was achieved in the sample with liquid: residue ratio of 7.5:1 and enzyme loading of 10 % w/w residue. The resulted glucose was converted to bioethanol using Saccharomyces cerevisiae where bioethanol yields from G. manilaensis and K. alvarezii were 56.26 ± 1.10 g/L and 51.10 ± 1.21 g/L respectively, which, corresponded to 91 % and 95 % of the theoretical yield. Result of this study indicates that residues of these seaweeds can be efficiently converted to bioethanol and besides environmental benefits, additional profit can be achieved in the phycocolloid industry.

Biochemical and Nutritional Composition of Industrial Red Seaweed Used in Carrageenan Production

ABSTRACTThe main four seaweed species for carrageenan production used in industry are Eucheuma denticulatum, Kappaphycus alvarezii, Chondrus crispus, and Sarcothalia crispata. In addition, a fifth red seaweed, Furcellaria lumbricalis, is a source of furcellaran, which is very similar to carrageenan. In this study, the chemical composition including total lipid, fatty acid profile, tocopherol content, total protein, amino acid profile, and total phenolic content of the five semi-dried industrial red seaweeds were analyzed. The obtained results indicated that when considering the total commercial production of carrageenan, there is potential to develop a method to extract protein before the main process for carrageenan extraction. Protein was the most considerable compound in the selected seaweed, and it varied from 4% for E. denticulatum up to 28% for F. lumbricalis. In the future, this may lead to a multi-product extraction (biorefinery) approach to result in more than one product instead of the traditional single-product procedure.