Caribbean Subregion Research Articles

Critical period of weed competition in cowpea

Weed competition is one of the factors that limit cowpea production in the world, causing losses of up to 90% of grain yield and quality. Knowledge of the critical period of weed competition (CPC) is important to prevent significant losses of grain and resources in the production process. The objective was to determine the critical period of weed competition in the cultivation of cowpea beans, Missouri cultivar, in two sowing seasons: dry (2022B) and rainy (2023A) of warm dry Colombian Caribbean. The randomized complete block design was used with eight treatments and four repetitions. The first four treatments corresponded to manual control of weeds in the intervals 0-10, 0-20, 0-30 and 0-50 days after emergence (DAE), the second four treatments corresponded to the crop-weed coexistence, in the same intervals. Cowpea grain yield, dry mass, cover and weed community composition were evaluated. The critical period of competition of weeds in the cowpea crop for the dry and rainy seasons was 14-33 and 14-29 days after emergence, respectively. The reduction in grain yield was 65.2% in the dry season and 80.46% in the rainy season. Rottboellia cochinchinensis had the highest occurrence rate with 30.3% and a density of 90 individuals per m2; which is important for the agronomic management of the crop in the humid Caribbean subregion.

Mortality and disability-adjusted life years in motorcyclists in Latin America and the Caribbean during the first decade of action for road safetyMortalidad y años de vida ajustados por discapacidad de los motociclistas en América Latina y el Caribe en la primera década de seguridad vial

To identify the temporal trend in mortality and years of life lost to death or disability (DALY) due to motorcycle accidents in males from Latin America and the Caribbean from 2010 to 2019, using estimates produced by the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. In this ecological study, the time series was analyzed using a piecewise linear regression model (joinpoint) to estimate and test the annual percent change and the average annual percent change with a 95% confidence interval. The super-region defined by GBD 2019 as Latin America and the Caribbean ranked first globally in mortality and DALY for male motorcyclists aged 15-49 in 2019. Rates increased significantly from 2010 to 2013, with a significant reduction in both after this period. During the analyzed decade, the Tropical Latin America sub-region (Brazil and Paraguay) had the highest mortality and DALY rates in the population of interest; nevertheless, this was the only sub-region achieving a significant reduction in these rates. The Caribbean sub-region (Bermuda, Dominica, Suriname, Guyana, Belize, Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Saint Kitts and Nevis, U.S. Virgin Islands, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua and Barbuda, Cuba e Jamaica) showed a significant increase in both rates over the same period, while Andean Latin America (Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru) and Central Latin America (Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Honduras, and Venezuela) remained stable. The data underscore the importance of developing surveillance actions aimed at preventing motorcycle accidents, since the observed declining rates are still insufficient to address the morbidity and mortality associated with road accidents as a public health problem.

247.2: Advancing Towards an Equitable Access of Transplantation in Latin American and Caribbean Sub-Region

247.2: Advancing Towards an Equitable Access of Transplantation in Latin American and Caribbean Sub-Region

Antimicrobial Resistance in the Caribbean

ABSTRACT Objectives Antimicrobial resistance is a global problem. The extent of this problem in the Caribbean sub-region is not well characterised. Most reports are from a few countries within the Caribbean sub-region. The aim was to develop and refine an antimicrobial resistance surveillance system at the Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA) for member states. The objectives were to: 1. establish and test a surveillance system for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) starting with key bacterial isolates such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp. and Streptococcus pneumoniae from key specimens such as blood, in line with the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS), 2. to expand this surveillance to other organisms and specimens, 3. to share data with CARPHA member states (CMS) for quality improvement. Methods Isolates were submitted by hospitals from 13 (50%) CMS. The CMS laboratories sent clinically relevant isolates of five key species: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Enterococcus faecium. The isolates were mainly from urine, blood, and wound samples. Phenotypes and antimicrobial susceptibilities were determined using the VITEK 2 Compact (VITEK) system. The VITEK identification and susceptibilities were emailed back to the laboratories. Results The laboratory received 1013 isolates from April 2017 through July 2018. Most of the bacteria received were Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus. Three hundred and sixteen isolates were identified as S. aureus from 323 Staphylococcus spp. and 38% of the S. aureus isolates received were Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Two hundred and seventy-eight isolates of E. coli were tested and identified; 11% were extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers. Two hundred and eighty-three isolates of K. pneumoniae were identified from 291 Klebsiella spp.; 30% were ESBL producers. The samples were received from multiple specimen types. Three carbapenem resistant isolates of K. pneumoniae, confirmed on subculture and repeat testing, were obtained from 3 CMS, widely distributed in the Caribbean region. Conclusions Antimicrobial resistance within the Caribbean is widespread. There is need for continued antimicrobial stewardship and infection control efforts. Surveillance should be started with Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus, from blood specimens. Key Words: antibiotic, antimicrobial, resistance, Caribbean, Staphylococcus, Klebsiella, Escherichia, Yeast

Historical Biogeography of the Leptodactylus fuscus Group (Anura, Leptodactylidae): Identification of Ancestral Areas and Events that Modeled their Distribution.

The objective of the present study was to reconstruct the biogeographic history of the monophyletic group Leptodactylus fuscus. We carried out two complementary historical biogeographic approaches: one estimates the ancestral areas with the statistical dispersion and vicariance method (S-DIVA). The other detects disjoint distributions among sister groups, which provides information about barriers that separate populations through a spatial analysis of vicariance (VIP method). For that, we used a database of species presence records and a topology of a phylogenetic cladogram, both obtained from updated published data that incorporates the current phylogenetic, taxonomic and distributional arrangements for the group. For the analysis of ancestral areas, the following areas of the L. fuscus group distribution were used: the Carribean, Chacoan, Parana, Amazonian and North American in Pacific subregions. The optimal reconstruction obtained with S-DIVA showed five vicariance events, two extinctions and 50 dispersals. The spatial analysis of vicariance revealed 19 disjointed sibling nodes and two distributions on nodes removed in the consensus tree. The results suggest that the ancestor of the Leptodactylus fuscus group occupied large areas within the Amazon and Chacoan subregions. Due to several dispersal events, the ancestor distribution range may have expanded to the Caribbean subregion. This expansion could have occurred during wetter periods, when forests were more extensive, which would have allowed the invasion of open habitats within humid forest systems. It is important to note that ecological factors and marine transgressions that occurred during the Miocene could have had a great influence on the current distribution of the group.

Abstract 13165: Increasing Incidence Rates and High Case Fatality Rates for Acute Myocardial Infarction in the Caribbean Island of Barbados

Introduction: The Caribbean sub-region has the highest rates of cardiovascular disease in the Region of the Americas. We present data from one of the few population-based registries in the region - the Barbados National Registry for NCDs (BNR). We describe trends in incidence and case fatality rates for acute myocardial infarction(MI) in the high income small island developing state of Barbados. Hypothesis: Myocardial infarction age-standardized incidence rates (ASIRs) are increasing. Methods: Data from the BNR were collected prospectively from charts of patients diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction from all private and public hospitals for the period 2010-2019. Out-of-hospital deaths and in-hospital deaths within 24 hours, were identified through the national vital registration department. Cases are defined in accordance with the Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarctions published by the American Heart Association. Population estimates were obtained from the United Nation World Population Prospects. We calculated incidence rates by sex, age-standardized to the World Health Organization 2000 population and assessed trends in case fatality rates for those admitted to hospital. Results: For the period 2010-2019, 4065 cases of as myocardial infarction (MI) were registered by BNR. Numbers of cases ranged from 294 in 2011 to 547 in 2019. The 3-year average for 2014 - 2016 is 391 cases versus 499 cases for 2017 - 2019 - a 28% increase in new cases. ASIRs increased from 67 per 100,000 (95%UI 59 to 75) in 2011 to 123 per 100,000 (95%UI 113 to 135) in 2019. ASIRs were consistently higher in men ranging from 83 per 100,00 (95% UI 71 - 98) to 120 (95% UI 106 to 136) while rates in women ranged from 43 per 100,000 95% CI (35 - 53) to 83 per 100,000 (73 - 95). The in-hospital case fatality rate (CFR) was 25% in 2019, ranging from 15% in 2011 to 31% in 2014. Overall, CFR was higher in women (24%) versus men (19%) and this was true in 9/10 years. Conclusions: Despite its status as a high income country, ASIRs for MIs in Barbados are increasing while case fatality rates are more than twice as high as rates found in developed countries.

Public-Private Partnerships in transport: a critical assessment of the Caribbean

PurposeThis article critically analyses the extent to which selected Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) transportation projects in the Caribbean subregion embrace good practices and how they benefit the public sector.Design/methodology/approachThe article begins with the general rationale of PPPs, leading to a discussion on the specific challenges of the Caribbean subregion and an assessment of certain critical projects. The sample cases include the L F Wade International Airport in Bermuda, the cruise berthing and cargo port redevelopment project in the Cayman Islands, and the Sanger International Airport in Jamaica. There are five aspects to the critical assessment: (a) an evaluation of the type of PPP arrangement used; (b) the legal/policy framework; (c) financial implications; (d) accountability; and (e) miscellaneous data. Desk-based research is conducted as supported by both international and local sources to convey a uniquely local perspective in this under-researched area of scholarship.FindingsPPP frameworks in the Caribbean are improving quickly but remain a work in progress. Jamaica leads the region. Bermuda trails behind. Problems of legal compliance with frameworks and limited market engagement persist, leading to risk management problems.Originality/valueThis article fills a literature gap on critical analysis of individual Caribbean PPP transportation projects. Previous reports, mostly by international organisations, cover regional or sectorial trends. Other sources take a descriptive but not critical approach.

Addressing the challenges of regulatory systems strengthening in small states

Countries should ensure equitable access to quality medicines. Regulatory systems for medicines and other health technologies are an essential part of well-functioning health systems and are a requisite for achieving...

Trends in cardiometabolic risk factors in the Americas between 1980 and 2014: a pooled analysis of population-based surveys

SummaryBackgroundDescribing the prevalence and trends of cardiometabolic risk factors that are associated with non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is crucial for monitoring progress, planning prevention, and providing evidence to support policy efforts. We aimed to analyse the transition in body-mass index (BMI), obesity, blood pressure, raised blood pressure, and diabetes in the Americas, between 1980 and 2014.MethodsWe did a pooled analysis of population-based studies with data on anthropometric measurements, biomarkers for diabetes, and blood pressure from adults aged 18 years or older. A Bayesian model was used to estimate trends in BMI, raised blood pressure (systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg), and diabetes (fasting plasma glucose ≥7·0 mmol/L, history of diabetes, or diabetes treatment) from 1980 to 2014, in 37 countries and six subregions of the Americas.Findings389 population-based surveys from the Americas were available. Comparing prevalence estimates from 2014 with those of 1980, in the non-English speaking Caribbean subregion, the prevalence of obesity increased from 3·9% (95% CI 2·2–6·3) in 1980, to 18·6% (14·3–23·3) in 2014, in men; and from 12·2% (8·2–17·0) in 1980, to 30·5% (25·7–35·5) in 2014, in women. The English-speaking Caribbean subregion had the largest increase in the prevalence of diabetes, from 5·2% (2·1–10·4) in men and 6·4% (2·6–10·4) in women in 1980, to 11·1% (6·4–17·3) in men and 13·6% (8·2–21·0) in women in 2014). Conversely, the prevalence of raised blood pressure has decreased in all subregions; the largest decrease was found in North America from 27·6% (22·3–33·2) in men and 19·9% (15·8–24·4) in women in 1980, to 15·5% (11·1–20·9) in men and 10·7% (7·7–14·5) in women in 2014.InterpretationDespite the generally high prevalence of cardiometabolic risk factors across the Americas, estimates also showed a high level of heterogeneity in the transition between countries. The increasing prevalence of obesity and diabetes observed over time requires appropriate measures to deal with these public health challenges. Our results support a diversification of health interventions across subregions and countries.FundingWellcome Trust.

A Historical and Comparative Survey of the Chinese Presence in the Latin American and Caribbean Region, with a Focus on the Anglophone Caribbean

Abstract In this paper, I first broadly map the historical patterns of Chinese presence in the Latin America and Caribbean (lac) region, as a way of distinguishing the primary locations and forms of incorporation and settlement. This historical context provides a baseline from which to examine patterns of the new post-1980s instantiations of Chinese presence in the wider lac region and Central America and Caribbean (cac) sub-region, with particular reference to the English-speaking Caribbean, and, even more specifically, the Eastern Caribbean group of islands with no historical antecedent of an older Chinese diaspora. To highlight this specificity, I include findings from preliminary research conducted in several of these islands, and examine some of the key emerging configurations and complications of the new dual presence in the Anglophone Caribbean of the Chinese state and private entrepreneurial immigrant.

The Expanded Program on Immunization in the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean (1977-2016): reasons for its success.

ABSTRACTThe year 2017 marks the 40th year of the establishment of the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the regional office of the World Health Organization (WHO) in the Americas, the first WHO region certified as eliminating poliomyelitis (1994), measles (2016), and rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) (2015). The English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean subregion of the Americas paved the way in eliminating these diseases. This report highlights the innovative strategies used in this subregion that helped make the EPI a success.A review of published/unpublished reports and written and oral accounts of the experiences of Immunization Advisors and national EPI managers was conducted to identify the strategies used to strengthen the Immunization program in the subregion since its implementation by countries in 1977. The results show that these include strong collective political commitment, country-specific immunization legislation, joint use of a standard coverage monitoring chart, annual meetings of national EPI managers, collaborative development of annual national Plans of Action for Immunization, coordinated implementation of vaccination campaigns, subregional oversight of surveillance and laboratory support, a performance award system for countries, and subregional standardized templates for immunization manuals and procedural guidelines. Political will and support for immunization has been particularly strong in this subregion, where 99% of EPI costs are borne by governments. Dedicated health staff and multi-country agreement and application of strategies have led to high sustained coverage and good-quality surveillance, resulting in the absence of wild polio for 34 years, measles for 25 years, CRS for 17 years, and rubella for 15 years.

First Amazonian species of Maracaynatum, with comments on the genus (Opiliones: Laniatores: Samoidae).

Among Opiliones, the family Samoidae Sørensen, 1886 is a group of small Laniatores with a wide tropical distribution. Neotropical samoids are distributed mainly in the Caribbean subregion, with species recorded from insular localities and the Venezuelan coastal range. Previously, for continental South America only three genera and just a few specimens of unidentified Samoidae have been recorded from Brazil. In this paper we describe Maracaynatum isadorae sp. nov., the first record of the genus for Brazil and the first samoid described for the Amazon biome. We also provide an emended diagnosis for the genus and a map with its distribution.

Biogeography and areas of endemism of Prepops Reuter (Heteroptera: Miridae).

The Miridae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) are one of the most species rich families of insects, with about 11 100 described species. Mirinae is the largest subfamily and its endemism becomes evident at the tribal level and below. Mirines of the tribe Restheniini are found throughout America, with most of the diversity confined to the Neotropics. Prepops Reuter is the largest genus in Restheniini with 198 described species and its geographi- cal range is similar to that of the tribe. The study of the distribution and areas of endemism in Miridae are scarce and non-existent for Prepops. We analyzed all the geographic records of Prepops (707 records for 181 species) in order to identify diversity patterns and areas of endemism, using network analysis. Locality data were assigned using museum specimens and geographic records in the literature. Additionally we used spatial data to propose habitat preferences and geoclimatic variables important for each group of co-occurring species. The results indicate high species richness in subtropical regions, while the tropical belt and high latitudes appear impover- ished. The Neotropical region contains 86% of the species, and the Nearctic about 11 % (but with larger species ranges); the Andean region is sparingly represented. Twenty-three areas of endemism (and two diads), formed by 2 or more endemic species, are distributed in the Nearctic (3), Mexican Transition Zone and Caribbean sub- region (5), South American Transition Zone and Amazonian, Chacoan and Paranaense subregions (15). Overlap between some of the areas indicates regions with high species richness and complex history. The lack of records from the Andean region (except for P. nigrus in Southern Patagonia) and dominance of strictly Neotropical spe- cies (86 %) supports the hypothesis of a Neotropical origin for the tribe Restheniini. The general arrangement of the units of co-occurrence of Prepops species shows a close correlation with known biogeographic regions and subregions. Broad physiographic characteristics most commonly associated with Prepops geographical records are, in order of importance: broad leaf forests (wet and dry), grasslands and xeric habitats.

Modelos de nicho ecológico fundamental para especies del género Thraulodes (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae: Atalophlebiinae)

Research on mayflies biogeography in the American continent have been generally narrative, proposing centers of origin and dispersal routes, suggesting distribution patterns for certain genera. Few researches have addressed the species level. In order to determine potential distribution patterns for species of Thraulodes, we used MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy), software based on the fundamental ecological niche model. From georeferenced records of 51 species we generated distribution patterns for 15 species that had 5 or more records. Area under Curve (AUC) data were close to 1 for T. brunneus, T. cochunaensis, T. consorts, T. eccentricus, T. gonzalesi, T. itatiajanus, T. lunatus, T. pacaya, T. packeri, T. paysandensis, T. Speciosus, T. schlingeri, T. tenulineus and T. zonalis, except for T. grandis. Across the continent, the variable determining the distributions was the ecoregion, and to a lesser extent those related to temperature and precipitation. Species with distributions ranges that go from the Mesoamerican domain (Caribbean subregion of the Neotropics) to the Nearctic appear to tend to overlapping and are less restricted than those species of South American Neotropics.

Broad polyphyly and historical biogeography of the neotropical wasp genus Notiospathius (Braconidae: Doryctinae)

Morphological convergence is a frequently observed pattern that occurs in species with similar environments, trophic niches, and/or life history strategies. In particular, adaptive morphological convergence is common in small, highly diverse invertebrate taxa sharing similar life history strategies such as parasitoidism. The genus Notiospathius is a braconid parasitoid wasp group with a vast, undetermined number of species distributed throughout the Neotropics. Members of this genus possess a considerably elongated, petiolate first metasomal tergite. This structure, however, also occurs in species of other doryctine genera, both closely and distantly related, probably due to adaptation for attacking wood and bark boring coleopteran larvae. Here we investigated the phylogenetic relationships among 117 species assigned to Notiospathius, including species of its closely related genera Masonius and Tarasco, as well as members of a number of other doryctine genera in order to test its monophyly. Separate and concatenated Bayesian partitioned analyses were carried out using two mitochondrial and three nuclear gene markers. The influence of each gene on the overall topology was verified using a cross-validation analysis for each marker with a “leave-one-out” approach. Moreover, the historical biogeography of Notiospathius was assessed calculating divergence time estimates of clades with BEAST and performing ancestral area reconstruction analyses both with RASP (Bayesian and S-DIVA) and Lagrange (DEC). All analyses recovered a polyphyletic Notiospathius consisting of three separate clades that were more related to other doryctine genera than to each other. The relationships reconstructed could not be used to confidently establish the limits of Notiospathius with respect to its closely related genera Tarasco and Masonius, and thus the generic status of the latter two taxa is maintained. Our divergence time estimates and ancestral area reconstructions indicate that the most recent common ancestor of Notiospathius sensu stricto originated in the Caribbean subregion during the Oligocene–Miocene boundary, and subsequently diversified during the mid- to late Miocene, radiating throughout the Neotropics.

Generalized tracks, area cladograms and tectonics in the Caribbean

AbstractAimTo test the ‘naturalness’, or integrity as a biogeographical unit, of the Caribbean subregion.LocationA wide geographical range in the Caribbean (32° N, 115° W; 10° S, 56° W). As units of analysis, 43 biogeographical provinces were used: 24 assigned to the Caribbean subregion, and 19 provinces situated north and south of this subregion, which were used as outgroup areas.MethodsWe analysed 895 plant and animal taxa distributed in the Caribbean. We used parsimony analysis of endemicity with progressive character elimination (PAE‐PCE) to identify generalized tracks and nodes, and parsimony analysis of paralogy‐free subtrees to infer their historical relationships.ResultsWe obtained 10 generalized tracks and five nodes from the panbiogeographical analysis and 14 most parsimonious general area cladograms from the cladistic biogeographical analysis. In general terms, the results of both analyses are congruent, reflecting a similar history of vicariant events in the Caribbean area.Main conclusionsPanbiogeographical and cladistic biogeographical analyses reflected a similar history of vicariant events in the Caribbean: the Caribbean subregion as it is currently defined does not represent a ‘natural’ biogeographical unit; the Isthmus of Tehuantepec might not represent a conspicuous biogeographical barrier; and the biogeographical relevance of the Isthmus of Panama exceeds the last 3 million years, which is the time it has operated as a connection between North and South America.

Epidemiological trends and clinical manifestations of Dengue among children in one of the English-speaking Caribbean countries

The epidemiology and clinical presentation of dengue fever among children in the Caribbean is poorly characterized. We therefore studied the epidemiology, clinical presentation, immunological characteristics, morbidity and mortality from dengue virus infection among children in Barbados, one of the English-speaking Caribbean countries. In this population-based, retrospective descriptive study, we screened all children on the island up to the age of 16 years who presented over a 10-year period (January 2000 through December 2009) with febrile illness and suspected dengue virus infection (n = 1809). We report on all the laboratory-confirmed cases of dengue (702/1809), for 545 of which we had complete clinical data. The annual incidence of dengue virus infection among children ranged between 0.29 and 2.92 cases/1000 children, with most cases seen during October through January. Children presented with undifferentiated fever (287/545, 53%), classical dengue fever (225/545, 41%), dengue hemorrhagic fever (15/545, 3%) and expanded dengue syndrome (i.e. severe involvement of liver, kidneys, brain, heart, or other unusual manifestations) (18/545, 3%). In most cases (73%), the infection was secondary. Thirty per cent of cases were diagnosed among hospitalized children and the overall crude mortality rate was 0.3%. Our study for the first time describes the epidemiology and disease characterization of dengue in Barbados, and quantifies the morbidity and mortality among children for this rapidly emerging public health problem in the Caribbean sub-region of the Americas.

Lessons Learned From Integrated Surveillance of Measles and Rubella in the Caribbean

The Caribbean subregion was one of the first areas to successfully integrate measles and rubella surveillance, and it can serve as an example to other subregions on how to achieve similar success. The integrated surveillance system, established through strong political commitment by Caribbean countries, is coordinated by the Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC). The system, which became operational in January 2000, is designed to detect and investigate patients with fever and rash illness, and also test a blood specimen from each case investigated. During over 9 years of operation, 3733 cases were reported and investigated. Laboratory tests identified 2 imported cases of measles, 27 cases of rubella, 309 cases of dengue, and 260 cases of human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) infection. The lessons learned from the success of this integrated system indicate that the following factors are critical: strong political commitment, strong technical oversight from all levels within the health-care system, the use of proven tools or systems and technology for data collection and analysis, integration with other surveillance activities, continuing training, and continuing review and evaluation.

The Caribbean Experience in Maintaining High Measles Vaccine Coverage

The Caribbean subregion was the first area of the world to eliminate measles. From 1991 through 2010, the 21 countries of the subregion were remarkably successful in maintaining their measles-free status despite importations of the virus from areas where it continues to circulate. This task has been accomplished by ensuring that each country in the subregion maintains measles vaccine coverage of ≥95%. The absence of measles is the result of a collaboration between the various national authorities and the Pan American Health Organization in ensuring vaccination campaigns to deliver the second dose of a measles-containing vaccine, estimating and validating vaccine coverage for both the first and second doses of measles vaccine for all local populations; developing detailed plans of action to improve coverage in those populations where coverage is <95%; providing technical assistance for the implementation of the plan; and performing follow-up to confirm that all aspects of the plans were in fact implemented and that the target vaccination level was achieved. These efforts have been extremely successful in maintaining high vaccine coverage and, therefore, in keeping the virus from circulating on those occasions when it has been reintroduced into the subregion. Although sophisticated statistical methods have been used to identify weaknesses in national vaccine programs, the program is basically quite simple and can be systematically implemented in any country that has the desire to eliminate measles from its population.

Parsimony analysis of endemicity as a panbiogeographical tool: an analysis of Caribbean plant taxa

To demonstrate that parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) can be a method implementing the panbiogeographic approach, we analyzed two data matrices of 40/38 biogeographic provinces ¥ 148 plant species from the Caribbean subregion of the Neotropical region, one where taxa are represented by individual tracks and the other where taxa are represented by single sample localities. We obtained six generalized tracks resulted from the PAE of the areas ¥ individual tracks matrix, and one generalized track from the PAE of the areas ¥ single sample localities matrix, with the latter nested within the former tracks. The results obtained show that PAE works as a panbiogeographical tool if it is based on an areas ¥ individual tracks matrix. When performed in this way, PAE retrieves spatial information that is lost when it is based on an areas ¥ single sample localities matrix, raising doubts regarding the conclusions derived from this latter type of analysis. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101, 961–976.