Caribbean Marine Protected Areas Research Articles

The no-take zone network of the Mexican Caribbean: assessing design and management for the protection of coral reef fish communities

Understanding the effects and benefits provided by the design and management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is crucial for developing cost‐effective management actions. We characterized the management and design of no-take zone (NTZ) networks of eight Mexican Caribbean MPAs. To determine protection effectiveness, we followed a two-step approach. First, we evaluated the effect of the level of protection (NTZ, partial and unprotected areas), habitat structure and local human threats on four fish community metrics: total biomass, commercial fish biomass, mean trophic level and commercial fish mean size. If the protection afforded by the NTZ was significant, a second model was developed to evaluate design and management effectiveness. Total biomass, commercial fish biomass and mean trophic level were correlated significantly and positively with no-take protection; and, partially protected areas showed a significant and positive correlation with commercial fish biomass and mean trophic level. MPA age was the only significant and positive design and management characteristic that explained the variation in commercial fish biomass. This might be in part due to the suboptimal design of the MPA network that has mostly resulted from economic and social opportunities with little consideration for ecological guidelines and management capacities. Our findings suggest that to increase reef fish protection it would be necessary to include reef habitats with high coral cover and structural complexity inside NTZs. However, the effectiveness of an MPA network not only requires ecological considerations but also factors that include compliance, enforcement and true community participation to achieve greater benefits. Policymakers must ensure adequate design and management of MPAs in order to improve the effectiveness of marine resource protection, promoting both sustainable use and long-term biodiversity conservation.

The community diversity of two Caribbean MPAs invaded by lionfish does not support the biotic resistance hypothesis

Marine protected areas (MPAs) conserve diversity and abundance of fish communities. According to the biotic resistance hypothesis, communities with higher diversity and abundance should resist invasions better. To test this idea, the presence of lionfish in two Caribbean MPAs was studied: Parque Nacional Guanahacabibes (PNG) in Cuba and Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Xcalak (PNAX) in Mexico. Selection of these MPAs was based on both their different levels of success with enforcement and different abundances of native fish, with a more abundant native fish fauna at PNG. Underwater visual censuses were used to evaluate both the native fish structure and composition and at the same time distribution and abundance of lionfish. The abundance of potential predators on lionfish was also measured to determine possible effects of lionfish on both the abundance and the size of its prey and competitors. Lionfish showed higher abundance and larger size in PNG compared to PNAX, even though its probable competitors and predators were also more abundant and larger in PNG. Prey abundance and size decreased after the invasion. No correlation was detected between potential predators and lionfish, which might indicate natural predation is not substantial. In PNAX, lower abundance of prey, potential competitors and predators can also be attributed to historical overfishing, but this did not provide an advantage to lionfish. Lionfish were less abundant and reached smaller sizes in PNAX compared to PNG. This work confirms the effectiveness of lionfish culling at PNAX, but does not support the biotic resistence hypothesis that native fish might have controlled this invasive species.

Archipelago Los Roques: A potential baseline for reef fish assemblages in the southern Caribbean

Abstract1. Despite increasing policies of protection, few localities in the Caribbean remain spared from human impacts. These lightly affected areas can better reflect the past composition of reef fish assemblages and provide baseline information about the natural factors driving fish distributions in the region.2. Reef fish assemblage structures were analysed in 21 Caribbean fished areas and marine protected areas (MPAs) along a gradient of distance to the nearest major market place. Assemblage structures by size and by trophic group were significantly related to the distance to market.3. Relationships of reef fish life‐history traits, families, and vulnerability indicators were examined with the seascape and the benthic composition at Los Roques Archipelago, the most isolated MPA in the analysis. Factors linked to seascape features were more important than benthic composition or human activities in explaining fish assemblage structure.4. Wave exposure was the most influential seascape metric. Exposed habitats were dominated by octocorals and sponges. More sheltered habitats were characterized by high coral cover, while leeward sites were characterized by steep slopes with close proximity to deeper water.5. Exposed habitats were mostly occupied by unspecialized fish species. Piscivore densities were high at south and south‐west sites, and were likely related to the large concentrations of planktivorous fishes found there. South and south‐west sites experience full oceanic conditions, and supported the highest species richness and densities within the archipelago.6. Los Roques National Park is one of the oldest and most remote Caribbean MPAs. Its fish assemblage structure is healthier than other fished or protected areas, with higher species richness, higher density of piscivores, and an abundance of large species. Predator–prey relationships provided additional evidence that Los Roques reef fish assemblage presented specific characteristics.7. The main patterns observed in this study represent a baseline for assessing reef fish assemblages elsewhere in the southern Caribbean.

Citizen science regarding invasive lionfish in Dutch Caribbean MPAs: Drivers and barriers to participation

Understanding the drivers and barriers to participation in citizen science initiatives for conservation is important if long-term involvement from volunteers is expected. This study investigates the motivations of individuals from five marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Dutch Caribbean to (not) participate in different initiatives around lionfish. Following an interpretive approach, semi-structured interviews with seventy-eight informants were conducted and analyzed using thematic network analysis. Approximately 60% (n = 48) of informants indicated that they had participated in citizen science initiatives at the outset of the invasion. From this group, almost half said that they still participated in some type of data collection, but only a few did so within a citizen science context. Many informants were initially motivated to participate in lionfish detection and response initiatives due to concern for the environment. Personal meanings attached to both the data collection experiences and to the data influenced informants’ motivations to sustain or cease data collection and/or sharing. In time, the view of lionfish as a threat changed for many informants as this species’ recreational and/or commercial value increased. Enabling and constraining factors for data collection and sharing were identified at the personal, interpersonal, organizational and technical levels. Our findings have implications for the design of future citizen science initiatives focused on invasive species.

Investigating Causal Pathways Linking Site-Level Characteristics, Compliance, and Ecological Performance in Caribbean MPAs

A rapidly growing body of empirical evidence has linked improved ecological performance of social–ecological systems (SES) with better compliance with rules governing human activities. Researchers have proposed several key factors that motivate an individual to comply with resource use rules, including deterrence, social pressures, moral inclinations, and perceived legitimacy of rules and responsible authorities. Much of the research on compliance proposes causal mechanisms at the individual human level, but few studies test causal paths with empirical data particularly at the site level. This study tested a proposed pathway for explaining overall compliance rates and ecological performance in SES using data from structured surveys of community members, key informant interviews, policy documents, and coral reef surveys at marine protected areas (MPAs) and their associated human communities in the wider Caribbean. Findings indicate that compliance and other active MPA management interventions positively affect ecological performance, and site-level contextual factors (level of community development and being part of a political network) positively influence significant predictors of overall compliance rates, which include active MPA management and enforced punishments.

Are Caribbean MPAs making progress toward their goals and objectives?

Regional efforts have increased the number and amount of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Caribbean, yet few studies have examined how these MPAs are progressing toward their goals and objectives. Using social and ecological data from a rapid assessment of 31 MPAs and their associated human communities in the wider Caribbean, this study investigates (1) the stated social and ecological objectives of MPAs; (2) the extent to which MPAs are making progress toward their stated social and ecological objectives; and (3) tradeoffs in progress toward social and ecological objectives. Findings indicate that Caribbean MPAs have multiple objectives related to both social and ecological conditions, and that most MPAs are making at least some progress towards achieving these objectives. Those MPAs with stated objectives to promote education and serve as a model for other MPAs seem to be making good progress on these objectives, while those with the objective of reducing conflict are not. Where MPAs are not meeting their goals and objectives, planners and managers should consider reallocating human and financial resources to address deficiencies and re-evaluating existing goals and objectives. It is important to consider how existing marine protected areas are performing as efforts in the Caribbean region and elsewhere continue to promote the establishment of new MPAs.

Isolation and characterization of 12 microsatellite loci to study connectivity in the yellow jawfish Opistognathus aurifrons

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are conservation strategies to preserve the degradation of marine ecosystems by allowing species to naturally recover. Central to MPA design is the assumption of connectivity in marine populations over hundreds of kilometers, but only in a few handful of species the scale of connectivity has been estimated. To facilitate the study of connectivity of reef fishes, we newly developed 12 microsatellite loci for the yellow jawfish Opistognathus aurifrons. We tested all microsatellite loci in eight Caribbean populations with various degrees of divergence. We found between 9 and 26 alleles per locus with polymorphism that ranged from 0.652 to 0.976. All loci were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, except loci 1588 and 7983. The described markers provide the most sensitive tools yet available to study connectivity at the finest spatial scale and evaluate if current networks of Caribbean MPAs maximize the potential for the recovery of reef fish populations.

Fish with chips: tracking reef fish movements to evaluate size and connectivity of Caribbean marine protected areas.

Coral reefs and associated fish populations have experienced rapid decline in the Caribbean region and marine protected areas (MPAs) have been widely implemented to address this decline. The performance of no-take MPAs (i.e., marine reserves) for protecting and rebuilding fish populations is influenced by the movement of animals within and across their boundaries. Very little is known about Caribbean reef fish movements creating a critical knowledge gap that can impede effective MPA design, performance and evaluation. Using miniature implanted acoustic transmitters and a fixed acoustic receiver array, we address three key questions: How far can reef fish move? Does connectivity exist between adjacent MPAs? Does existing MPA size match the spatial scale of reef fish movements? We show that many reef fishes are capable of traveling far greater distances and in shorter duration than was previously known. Across the Puerto Rican Shelf, more than half of our 163 tagged fish (18 species of 10 families) moved distances greater than 1 km with three fish moving more than 10 km in a single day and a quarter spending time outside of MPAs. We provide direct evidence of ecological connectivity across a network of MPAs, including estimated movements of more than 40 km connecting a nearshore MPA with a shelf-edge spawning aggregation. Most tagged fish showed high fidelity to MPAs, but also spent time outside MPAs, potentially contributing to spillover. Three-quarters of our fish were capable of traveling distances that would take them beyond the protection offered by at least 40–64% of the existing eastern Caribbean MPAs. We recommend that key species movement patterns be used to inform and evaluate MPA functionality and design, particularly size and shape. A re-scaling of our perception of Caribbean reef fish mobility and habitat use is imperative, with important implications for ecology and management effectiveness.

The role of SCUBA diver user fees as a source of sustainable funding for coral reef marine Protected areas

Coral reefs are both highly diverse and economically important. Human activities, however, threaten the world's coral reefs, endangering their biological and economic value. No take Marine Protected Areas (MPA), which ban fishing within MPA boundaries, help conserve and restore reef health and provide ecological resilience to reefs in the face of global warming and ocean acidification. In many cases, cost-benefit analyses have provided strong support for the establishment of protected areas, but insufficient funding is often the largest obstacle to successful MPA implementation. SCUBA diving tourism is one method for financing coral reef conservation. Creating employment opportunities in the tourist industry provides an alternative to destructive fishing methods for the local community, and diver user fees can also be used to directly fund MPA management. While diver fees are a successful source of funding for some MPAs, more often than not, no fees are collected or the fees collected are inadequate to cover the costs of managing an MPA. This paper compares current user fees charged for diving in Caribbean MPAs and compares the fees to what tourists pay to reach their destination, for hotel rooms and other amenities. Fewer than one quarter of MPAs charged fees. Whhen charged, the fees were, on average, well below likely willingness-to-pay levels. Fees were more likely to be charged when NGOs were involved with MPA management.

Recreational scuba diving in Caribbean marine protected areas: do the users pay?

There are more than 200 marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Caribbean and Central America that contain coral reefs and are therefore theoretically attractive to scuba divers. One fifth of dive operators in 30 countries were surveyed for their use of MPAs: the majority are located within 20 km of at least one MPA and 46% conduct at least 80% of their diving within a MPA. An estimated 15 million dives take place outside of Florida each year, half of these occurring inside MPAs. Only 25% of MPAs containing coral reefs charge divers an entry or user fee, which is most usually USD 2-3 levied per dive or per diver. The revenue generated by these fees is estimated at USD 1-2 million annually, but the potential for generating income has not been fully realized. A significant contribution to the cost of regional conservation could be achieved if higher fees were applied more widely than at present.

Differences between protected and unprotected reefs of the western Caribbean in attributes preferred by dive tourists

Tropical marine protected areas (MPAs) may promote conditions that are attractive to dive tourists, but a systematic basis for assessing their effectiveness in this regard is currently lacking. We therefore interviewed 195 dive tourists in Jamaica to determine which reef attributes they most preferred to see on dives. Attributes relating to fishes and other large animals (‘big fishes’, ‘other large animals’, ‘variety of fishes’, ‘abundance of fishes’, and ‘unusual fishes’) were more appreciated than those relating to reef structure and benthos (‘reef structure e.g., drop-offs’, ‘variety of corals’, ‘large corals’, ‘coral cover’, ‘unusual corals’, ‘sponges’, ‘unusual algae’, ‘lobsters, crabs etc.’). We then surveyed reef condition with regard to those aspects (abundance and variety of fishes, number of ‘unusual’, and number of ‘large’ fish) at four Caribbean MPAs and reference areas. In two cases, Hol Chan Marine Reserve in Belize and Parque Nacional Punta Frances in Cuba, these fish attributes were more pronounced in the MPAs than in the reference areas. Differences between the Montego Bay Marine Park in Jamaica (MBMP) and adjacent reference areas were mainly restricted to shallow sites (<6m), while at Grand Cayman no differences between fully protected and partially protected areas were detected. Management had not been fully effective in the MBMP in the preceding months, while fishing pressure in the partially protected areas on Grand Cayman was very light. We conclude that, if fishing restrictions are well enforced, western Caribbean MPAs can be expected to be effective in ways appreciated by dive tourists.