dams on all important Sierra Nevada rivers, and transportation of water by canal around the southern end of San Joaquin Valley from east to west. The estimated cost of ultimate major units of the State Water Plan in the Great Central Valley alone is $683,900,000. The Plan will probably be adopted piece by piece as demand justifies. The Papago Villages of Arizona and Sonora; Types and Sites j. w. HOOVER State Teachers College, Tempe, Arizona The Papago are a tribe of Indians numbering about 6000, who occupy the desert area along the Mexican boundary in south central Arizona. In this isolated desert environment, the Papago has been peculiarly immune from aggression. So the basic pattern of geographic adjustment has •remained much the same,; yet we may recognize four periods. The first was prehistoric, antedating the appearance of the white man, and therefore a phase of the maize and squash cultural complex common to the Southwest. In the second period of adjustment, that of Spanish influence, Catholicism, livestock and wheat were introduced. The third period dated from the Gadsen purchase. Americans caine to open mines and to establish stock ranches especially in the late sixties and seventies. The fourth period , within the present century, is a continuation of American influence. Hitherto American influence was passive , now it has become active in the stimulation of Americanization processes . The village of Pacinimo may be taken as expressing the general average of Papago villages. The Indian population numbers 171, and the white population 12. Two main groups of adobe and wattle houses or huts are at the north end of the village and represent two families, in the sense only that the people are all inter-related . At the south end of the village is the Catholic chapel and school, a small trading post, and a few Indian houses. Between the north and south ends of the village is the government well with the wind-mill and storage tanks. A large charco for the catchment and storage of surface runoff skirts the southeast edge of the village .. There is no other structural arrangement and nothing even suggesting streets. The site of Pacinimo is typical of villages and settlements dependent upon fields, located where the lower bahada and creosote bush zone gives way to the valley flats with salt bush and mesquite. Here the washes emerge from the arroyos and the water may be spread over the flats. Two types of village sites developed in earlier times; those located with reference to tillable plots. The former were reserve villages located at the foot of mountains or in their foothills . In late years deep wells have been put at nearly all the villages located at the fields, and so the reserve villages have shrunk, but in most cases a few families remain to take care of cattle. There are no large well built prehistoric structures in the Papago country, such as the Casa Grande on the Gila and the Pueblo ruins in the Salt River valley. However there are a number of fortified hills, with defense walls and rock terraces which were used for house sites. Excepting as the houses were partly walled up, their construction, as today, was very ephemeral. Such sites, known as "trincheras de cerros" are most numerous in the valleys of northern Sonora. Six such fortified hills are known in the (28) southeastern more favored part of the Arizona Papago reservation. Their builders were certainly on the defensive . Were they a prehistoric people driven out by invading tribes of Piman stock, or were they ancestors to the present Papago, harassed for a time by invaders whom they successfully resisted or assimilated? If the Papago are descendent from the Hohokam , or canal builders of the Salt and Gila plains, then the trincheras must be regarded as prehistoric Papago settlements. The invaders may have been Pueblo people from the north, the Salada people of Gladwin and Haury, or possibly they were the product of early Apache invasion. Soil Conservation Instruction in Common Schools and Colleges J. WRIGHT BAYLOR* Anacortes, Washington Educators have long recognized the fact that grade school training may play a vital part in determining a student's outlook upon...
Read full abstract
Dec 15, 2023
Irakli Topuridze 
Open Access