Cardamom Capsules Research Articles

<i>Eletteria cardamomum</i> and Greenly Synthesized MgO NPs: A Detailed Review of Their Properties and Applications

The use of live cells to synthesize green nanoparticles (NPs) is a promising and novel bio nanotechnology method. Chemical and physical methods are utilized to synthesize NPs; however, biological approaches are preferred because they are ecologically friendly, safe, healthful, cost-effective, accessible, and effective sources of high productivity and purity. Toxic and hazardous substances, as well as the use of external reducing, stabilizing, or capping agents, are not necessary for the green synthesis of NPs. Cardamom seeds, which are little Capsules (fruits) of <i>Elettaria cardamomum</i> (Family (Zingiberaceae)], have been used in herbal medicine to treat a wide range of ailments, including asthma, tooth and gum infections, cataracts, nausea, diarrhea, and cardiac, digestive, and kidney problems. Cardamom capsules have a number of additional health benefits that are important from both a traditional and current pharmacological perspective. MO-NPs (metal oxide nanoparticles) have caused quite a stir in recent years due to their diverse set of properties. <i>Elettaria cardamomum</i> is high in polyphenolic compounds and flavonoids, making it a viable green source for large-scale, low-cost, and environmentally friendly MgO-NP production. UV-Visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with EDS are used to investigate the phytoassisted synthesis of MgO. (Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy). Researchers have successfully disseminated suitable MO-NPs for obtaining significant results by leveraging their numerous desirable qualities, such as those found in the pharmaceutical, ceramics, textile, electronic, and fertilizer industries.

Essential Oil Profile Diversity in Cardamom Accessions From Southern India

The essential oil of cardamom capsules is a high-value ingredient in foods, beverages, perfumery, and traditional medicines. It is responsible for the characteristic aroma of cardamom. The present study aimed to evaluate essential oil yield and chemical constituents of 22 diverse accessions of cardamom. A total of 20 g of the cured capsules were hydrodistilled in a Clevenger apparatus for 3 h in three replications. The amount of essential oil yield ranged from 4.5 to 9.5%, indicating a substantial variation in this feature among the accessions. The GC/MS analysis results discovered 24 constituents that constituted 98.1–100% of total essential oil. The main fractions were found to be oxygenated monoterpenes (40.7–66.7%), monoterpene hydrocarbons (23.1–58.6%), and sesquiterpenes (0.1–2.0%). Among the monoterpenoids, the predominant constituents were α-terpinyl acetate (29.9–61.3%) followed by 1,8-cineole (15.2–49.4%), α-terpineol (0.83–13.2%), β-linalool (0.44–11.0%), and sabinene (1.9–4.9%). Two sesquiterpene constituents, cardinen and nerolidol and p-cresol (a phenol derivative) were also identified. The compositional data were subjected to euclidean-distance-based similarity analysis, which showed two major clusters. The major constituents of cardamom essential oil (CEO) are 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, sabinene, and β-linalool that can be used in food, aroma, and pharmaceutical applications.

Hot air convective drying of small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton): Evaluation of drying, color, and aroma kinetics

AbstractEffect of temperatures (40, 50, and 60°C) on quality attributes of small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) during hot air convective (HAC) drying was investigated. Kinetics of moisture, color and aroma during the HAC drying were analyzed. Among seven 2‐ and 3‐term exponential models, the Logistic model was best‐fitted to the drying data. Moisture transfer rates were found out to be 1.62 × 10−8, 2.51 × 10−8, and 3.64 × 10−8 m2 s−1 at 40, 50, and 60°C, respectively, and the activation energy of diffusion was 34.96 kJ mol−1. When surface color (L*, a*, and b*) and aroma (essential oil yield) were considered as another two quality criteria during the drying of cardamom capsules, samples dried at 50°C was observed to be the best. With drying time, the value of L* decreased, a* value increased, and b* value of cardamom samples increased. Weibull model yielded the higher correlation coefficient between the predicted and the experimental data of color parameters (L* and a*) whereas the Zero‐order model was fitted well for b* values for the entire temperature range. Aroma calculated as essential oil yield (% dry basis) increased with drying time due to the release of a large number of volatile components during the drying.Practical ApplicationSmall cardamom so far is known to have best among the spices in terms of quality. Although India is among the largest consumer and producer of cardamom, cardamom growers adopt the age‐old processing practices. Furthermore, there is the absence of systematic study and scientific understanding in the existing practice of cardamom drying. The existing design and development of a dryer suitable for cardamom capsules are highly dependent on moisture, color, and aroma profile during drying. Studying drying kinetics along with postprocessing quality evaluation such as color and aroma would support as preliminary information for the development of suitable dryers for optimum retention of color and aroma of cardamom capsules during the drying.

Estimation of Cardamom Capsule Size and Surface Area using Digital Image Processing Technique

Manual grading and sorting of cardamom spices require a long time and considerable resources. The introduction of machine vision technology can substantially increase the timeliness of grading operation and reduce the associated drudgery. This research was carried out to contribute towards the use of machine vision technology in the grading of cardamom spices. In this regard, the utility of images captured by mobile devices was assessed using digital image processing techniques. The color images of cardamom capsules were acquired using an Apple iPhone 7 in the first place. The geometric features (major diameter, minor diameter, surface area, and perimeter) of the samples were calculated using MATLAB algorithms. The pixelated units were converted into SI units (mm). The predicted values of the parameters were compared with the actual values. The goodness of fit was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R2), which was found to be 0.92, 0.88, 0.95, and 0.97 for the major diameter, minor diameter, surface area, and perimeter of the samples, respectively. In terms of mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), the accuracy of the model was found to be 95.64%, 94.74%, 95.32%, and 97.81% for the predicting major diameter, minor diameter, surface area, and perimeters of cardamom capsules, respectively. These results indicate that mobile images could be successfully incorporated in machine vision technology for the effective grading of cardamom capsules.

Evaluation of energy efficiency and moisture diffusivity for convective drying of large cardamom

The drying behavior of freshly harvested large cardamom capsules were studied in a hot air dryer within the temperature range of 50-80°C. The study on drying rate showed that the constant rate drying period was very short, and capsules mostly followed the falling rate drying period. The drying during falling rate drying was followed unsteady state mass transfer and was governed by Fick’s diffusion law. The drying rate was faster initially when the moisture content in the product was high but with a decrease of moisture content, the drying rate was found to be decreased. Nine different drying kinetics models were fitted to find the best suitable model to predict the drying kinetics of large cardamom capsules. The two-term model was the best-suited model out of the nine different models, representing the drying properties of large cardamom with the highest R2 and the lowest RMSE and χ2 values. The maximum effective moisture diffusivity Deff value of 3.898×10−10 was obtained at a drying temperature of 80°C, while the lowest value was 1.949×10−10 at 50°C. The dependency of effective moisture diffusivity with drying temperature was correlated by Arrhenius equation. The activation energy showing the minimum energy needed to extract moisture from a solid matrix of large cardamom capsule was calculated as 32.54 kJ/mol and the pre-exponential factor of Arrhenius equation was calculated at 7.6×10−4 m2/s.

Assessment of variation in volatile oil content in cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton

The volatile oil of cardamom capsules is an expensive ingredient in food preparation, beverages, perfumery andtraditional medicines. The capsules of 65 promising cardamom accessions were used to evaluate the volatile oilcontent estimation. The volatile of cured capsules were extracted by hydro-distillation method and it was ranged from&nbsp;2.2 % - 9.6%. Five cardamom accessions were observed highest volatile oil content, which was HY-3 and HY-4 (9.6%), S1 × GG (Type 2) and SAM-5 (9.3%) and PPK-2 (9.1%). This higher volatile oil content is due to the more number&nbsp;of seeds per capsule, capsule maturity and curing period. The number of seeds per capsules was ranged 6.1 in SAM-3 and 17.8 in HY-3 and HY-4. In this study, we have identified 5 high volatile oil content cardamom accessions that could&nbsp;be used for future breeding programs for developing varieties with high yielding as well as high volatile oil content.

Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton] - A critical review.

Small cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton. (Family: Zingiberaceae)] capsules (fruits) have been used for traditional medicine applications including for the control of asthma, teeth and gum infections, cataracts, nausea, diarrhea, as well as cardiac, digestive and kidney disorders. The versatile use of cardamom capsules has several other beneficial health effects that are relevant in light of traditional and modern pharmaceutical perspectives. This review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive evaluation of the traditional and current medical uses of E. cardamomum, and compare these applications with modern research studies. This critical review also discusses the botanical distribution, phytochemical constituents and biological activities of cardamom capsule extracts and essential oil. An online survey was conducted of the traditional uses, phytochemical composition, and pharmacological applications of cardamom essential oil (CEO) and extracts. Pertinent data were obtained from several electronic scientific databases (Science Direct, Elsevier, Web of Science, PubMed, Springer, ACS publications, Taylor and Francis, Wiley On-line Library and Google Scholar), and additional information was obtained from textbooks and local prints and scripts. Cardamom fruits (capsules) are used widely as a spice and flavoring ingredient in foods, and are often recognized for their beneficial health properties. They are also used in fragrances. Phytochemical analyses have described important chemical constituents of cardamom including carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, lipids, essential oils, flavonoids, terpenoids and carotenoids. CEO has several biological roles including antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, anticancer, gastro-protective and insecticidal activities. The widespread availability and recommendation of synthetic compounds for addressing human health have several side effects besides higher costs. Hence, examining natural bioactive compounds is imperative. This review investigates and presents the pertinent information on cardamom and its traditional uses, as well as potential pharmacological properties of CEO and extracts. Additional research studies are needed to understand the mechanism of action of bioactive constituents.

Quality Appraisal of Small Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) Sourced from A, B and C Zones of CHR in Idukki District of Kerala, India

Cardamom is one of the most important commercial spices grown and exported from India. More than 80% of production in India is from Cardamom Hill Reserve (CHR) of Idukki district in Kerala, India. There has been a demand to study the quality attributes of cardamom produced in CHR of Idukki district comprising of A, B and C zones. Highest essential oil content was recorded in cardamom samples from zone A. Maximum litre weight was recorded from zone C. The percentage of bold capsules (> 7 mm) was maximum in A zone compared to B & C zones. Number of seeds/ capsule from A and C zones were significantly higher when compared to B zone. Seed: Husk ratio and weight of one capsule did not vary significantly among the three zones. Chemical profiling of essential oil from the three zones revealed the highest content of 1,8-cineole(ether) and α-terpinyl acetate(ester) in cardamom from zone A followed by zone B and zone C. The intrinsic quality of cardamom is mainly attributed to these two compounds. The proportion of 1,8-cineole and α-terpinyl acetate did not vary among different zones and the mild spicy flavor attributed to α-terpinyl acetate is prominent in cardamom capsules from Idukki irrespective of zones when compared to camphory odor due to 1,8-cineole. Physical and chemical quality parameters of cardamom from three zones are compared and discussed.

Management of cardamom borer, Conogethes punctiferalis Guenee and thrips, Sciothrips cardamomi Ramk using diafenthiuron and its residues in fresh and cured cardamom capsules

ABSTRACTCardamom is an important spice crops used all over the world as a flavoring agent of food materials. The productivity is limited by insect pests and thus effective insecticide which does not leave residues in the produce is the need of the hour. Diafenthiuron 50 WP @ 300 g a.i ha−1 was found effective in managing both the cardamom shoot and capsule borer, Conogethes punctiferalis Guenee and thrips, Sciothrips cardamomi Ramk and thus can be recommended for pest management. Cardamom capsules were collected from the plants that were sprayed with diafenthiuron at the recommended dose of 200 g a.i ha−1 and double the dose (400 g a.i ha−1), which were then analyzed under HPLC with a normal phase column. The diafenthiuron residue was below the detectable levels of 0.05 µg g−1 in the harvested produce (both fresh and cured) after twelve and fourteen days of spray. So, capsules can be harvested safely without any risk of insecticide residues 12 days after spraying of diafenthiuron and thus can be recommended for usage in cardamom plantations.

Dissipation kinetics and effect of processing on clothianidin residues in cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton)

The dissipation behaviour of clothianidin (Dantop 50% WDG), a neonicotinoid insecticide, in fresh and cured cardamom capsules was studied following- application at 20 and 40 g a.i. ha-1, respectively, in the plantation of Indian Cardamom Hills (ICH), Idukki, Kerala, India. A single laboratory UPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the estimation of residues of clothianidin in fresh and cured cardamom. The recovery experiments were conducted at fortification levels of 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1μg g-1.The average recoveries obtained were 91.04 to 94.44 and 89.22 to 91.41 % for fresh and cured cardamom, respectively. The LOD and LOQ in both fresh and cured cardamom were found to be 0.005 and 0.01μg g-1, respectively. The initial deposits of clothianidin on fresh and cured cardamom were 1.96 and 5.24 μg g-1, respectively, following application at the lower dose while the corresponding deposits were 4.13 and 10.61μg g-1 at the higher dose. For fresh and cured cardamom, the residues dissipated below the quantitation level of 0.01μg g-1 after 21 and 28 days at both the doses, respectively. The half-life of clothianidin in fresh and cured cardamom was 3.40 and 3.11 days at the lower dose and 3.42 and 3.45 days at the higher dose, respectively. The waiting periods of clothianidin on fresh and cured cardamom at the lower and higher doses were 18.41 and 22.09 days, and 21.16 and 27.54 days, respectively. The processing factor was evaluated at the lower dose and the mean processing factor was 2.90.

Dissipation kinetics and effect of processing on imidacloprid and its metabolites in cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton).

Dissipation behaviour of the chloronicotinyl insecticide, imidacloprid (Tatamida 17.8 % SL), in fresh and cured cardamom capsules was studied following application at doses 20 and 40 g a.i. ha(-1) in a cardamom plantation of Indian Cardamom Hills (ICH), Idukki, Kerala, India. A single-laboratory ultra performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the estimation of imidacloprid and its six metabolites (5-hydroxy, olefin, guanidine, urea, 6-chloronicotinic acid and nitrosimine) in fresh and cured cardamom. At the lower dose, the initial deposits of total imidacloprid residues were 1.91 and 7.23 μg g(-1), respectively, in fresh and cured cardamom. At the higher dose, the initial residues were 3.94 and 14.72 μg g(-1), respectively, in fresh and cured capsules. The residues dissipated below the quantitation level of 0.01 μg g(-1) after 21 and 28 days at lower dose and after 28 days for both at higher dose. The half-lives of imidacloprid in fresh and cured cardamom were 4.02 and 3.63 days, respectively, at lower dose and 3.61 days for both at higher dose. The waiting periods of imidacloprid on fresh and cured cardamom at lower and higher doses were 21.40, 27.10, 23.85 and 30.70 days, respectively. The mean processing factor of imidacloprid was 3.96 at 20 g a.i. ha(-1). Amongst metabolites of imidacloprid, urea had maximum residues in fresh and cured cardamom followed by 5-hydroxy and guanidine. Other metabolites such as 6-chloronicotinic acid, olefin and nitrosimine were not detected either in fresh or cured cardamom.

Determination of flubendiamide residues and its safety evaluation for usage in cardamom by liquid chromatography

Cardamom is a major export oriented commodity in the world and it is susceptible to infestation by various pests which cause considerable economic loss. It is necessary to adopt new chemical insecticides with novel modes of action which control pest infestations. Flubendiamide fits into integrated pest management programmes in a variety of crops and is widely used in crops like tomato, cabbage and brinjal for controlling Lepidoptera pests and it is effective when used for cardamom. The major concern is ensuring residue free pods and safe harvest of cardamom for human consumption to prevent any health hazard. The present study investigates the behaviour of flubendiamide in cardamom in the humid subtropical conditions of India. A rapid, simple and selective method has been developed to determine residues of flubendiamide and desiodo flubendiamide in green cardamom, cured cardamom capsule, cured cardamom black seed and soil. The flubendiamide residues were extracted using the QuEChERS principle with acetonit...

Efficacy of Neem Oil on Cardamom Thrips,Sciothrips cardamomiRamk., and Organoleptic Studies

The neem tree contains promising pest control substances which are effective against many pests. Oil extracted from neem seeds was used against cardamom thrips,Sciothrips cardamomi, a severe and economic pest of cardamom. Neem oil formulations, namely, Tamil Nadu Agricultural univeristy neem oil (TNAU NO) (acetic acid &amp; citric acid), were found effective against the pest with a overall damage reduction of 30% after 14 days of treatment. The percent damage reduction in capsules over control after three consecutive sprays of TNAU NO(C) 2% and TNAU NO(A) 2% was 78.3 and 75.2 percent, respectively. The newly extracted and unformulated neem oil, though found inferior to the formulated one, still found to cause 50% and 70% reduction in damage caused by thrips at two and three rounds of sprays, making it useful in pest management. Organoleptic tests conducted on cardamom capsules sprayed with neem oil revealed no significant difference in taste, aroma, and overall acceptability of cow milk boiled with cardamom. Thus, TNAU NO (A and C) 2% was found effective against cardamom thrips with no adverse organoleptic properties and can be recommended.

Present and Future Climate Change in Indian Cardamom Hills: Implications for Cardamom Production and Sustainability

Aims: This paper examines the interactions between climate parameters and cardamom capsule yield and its sustainability in Indian Cardamom Hills. Methodology: Temporal trends were evaluated at annual, seasonal and monthly time scale using Mann-Kendall method. Significant trends were identified at annual, seasonal and monthly scale using two tailed Z-Test. The temporal trends were evaluated using the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test. To quantify the slope we used Sen’s non-parametric estimator of slope. The significance of the test was evaluated using two tailed Z-Test. A p value of Less than 0.05 was used to indicate statistical significance, using two tailed Z test. Results: Climate warming was significant in the recent decades in the Indian Cardamom Hills, which is recognized as one of the ecologically sensitive and biologically diverse areas. Considerable and significant spatial and temporal variations have occurred in the main climatic elements like air temperature, rainfall and relative humidity in the hill region. Significant positive trend in day-night time temperature has been observed and the trend differed from one station to another. Significant increasing trend was also observed for minimum temperature than maximum temperature and this had caused decline in diurnal temperature. Both winter and summer monsoon rainfall as well as high relative humidity had a positive influence on the yield of cardamom. However, the variability in these two types of rainfall was high for the entire region and the trend is negative. The variability of monthly mean precipitation is high for May, December and January under AR4 climate scenario. Conclusion: The sustainable yield of cardamom may be possible only when the winter and summer rainfall variabilities were minimal. Increasing trend of soil temperature from 0-10 cm depth was recorded, which was significant at 5 cm depth and can cause considerable negative implications for sustainable cardamom production both in terms of reduced soil moisture availability and altered pest population dynamics.

Harvest Time Residues of Thiodicarb in Cardamom

Studies were conducted to evaluate harvest time residues of thiodicarb 70 WP on cardamom in Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during 2007. A field trial was conducted in farmer’s holding near Kumily, Idukki district, Kerala and three sprays of thiodicarb 70 WP at 700 and 1400 g a.i. ha -1 were given along with untreated check. Cardamom capsule samples were collected at random on 30 days after last spray for analysis. The harvest time residues of thiodicarb 70 WP at 700 and 1400 g a.i. ha -1 were below detectable level both in green and cured cardamom capsules.

Batch Drying Kinetics of Cardamom in a Two-Dimensional Spouted Bed

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamom L.) is considered the “Queen of the Spices” and enjoys a unique position in the international spices market. It finds application in culinary art for flavoring of foods, pharmaceutical, perfumery, cosmetics, and several other industries. Cardamom capsules contain 80% (wb) moisture content at the time of harvest, which must be brought down to 8–12% (wb) for safe storage. Drying is one of the most important unit operations in the commercial production of cardamom, because it determines the color of the end product. Conventionally, the cardamom capsules are dried in a kiln dryer, which yields a poor quality end product. The batch drying kinetics of cardamom were investigated experimentally in a two-dimensional spouted bed using both continuous and intermittent (on/off) spouting and heating schemes. The parameters investigated include inlet air temperature, bed height, slant angle, separation distance, draft tube height, and intermittency of spouting. The results indicated that the drying kinetics were comparable with fluidized beds for slow drying materials, where the drying rate is controlled by internal moisture diffusion. The drying characteristics of the cardamom in the spouted bed indicated that the inlet air temperature was the parameter that most significantly affected the drying rate as well as the quality of the product. It also showed that the intermittent drying of particles took 13 to 18 h compared to continuous drying, which ranged from 9½ to 13 h. Intermittent drying can save up to 25% of the thermal energy, in addition to yielding a better quality product in terms of color, flavor, and percentage yield of oleoresin extract.

Determination of Harvest Time Residues of Thiacloprid in Cardamom

Cardamom, Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton. the queen of spices is indigenous to the Southern states of India. It is cultivated in Western Ghats (Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) in an area of 73,795 ha. with a production of 12,540 MT (2005-06) and one of the important products fetching enormous foreign exchange (Stanley, 2007). India was the world’s largest producer and exporter until it was taken over by Guatemala in the 18th century. One of the major constraints in the production of cardamom is the excessive damage caused by pests. At present, these pests are kept under check with the help of synthetic insecticides. With the strict legislations enforced by the EPA, cardamom capsules with pesticide residues have a chance of being rejected by the hitherto importing countries, which in turn would have a major say in foreign revenues.

Benefits of value addition: A success story from the hills of Nepal

Agriculture is the main economic activity in Nepal, occupying more than 80 per cent of its workforce. Poverty is widespread and is largely a rural phenomenon. Over 70 per cent of the people earn less than US$2 a day (IFAD, 2007). Conventional approaches to alleviate poverty have met with partial success as they fail to address the real needs of the poor people. This article describes the experience gained by SNV (the Netherlands Development Organization) Nepal in the cardamom sub-sector through the promotion of improved drying techniques and the strengthening of key actors in the cardamom value chain. Initial results show that the use of improved dryers has provided smallholders with an additional income of $117 per hectare as a result of improvement in the quality of dry cardamom and savings in fuelwood, labour and cracking losses of cardamom capsules. These improvements in quality have additionally enabled traders to secure a higher price per tonne for cardamom from Taplejung. Recommendations to improve and sustain the enterprise include: addressing the problem of pests and disease; replacing old planting stock with those tolerant to pests and disease; modifying improved dryers to bring down costs; diversifying markets; implementing an effective marketing strategy; and forming a cardamom development board.

Drying characteristics of cardamom in fluidised bed drier

A batch type fluidised bed drier of smaller capacity was developed for drying cardamom. Experiments were conducted to determine the drying characteristics of cardamom with three heated air temperatures viz. 40, 50 and 60°C and three air velocities viz. 35, 40 and 45 m/s. The results of the study showed that better quality dried product could be obtained from cardamom capsules. The drying of cardamom capsules was followed in falling rate period and drying behaviour found was exponential in nature. The drying time varied between 7.5 and 12.5 h for all the treatments. The drying rate of cardamom was higher during initial stages with all the combinations of air velocities and heated air temperatures and decreased as equilibrium moisture content of cardamom capsules approached. The quality of the dried product was found to be very good at an air velocity of 40 m/s at a drying temperature of 50°C, whereas product from all other treatments were found good.

Study of drying characteristics of large-cardamom

India is the largest producer of large-cardamom in the world with 54% share in world production followed by Nepal (33%) and Bhutan (13%). For long-duration storage of cardamom and in order to bring out its aroma, the fresh cardamom capsules (with 80–85% moisture) has to be dried immediately after harvesting to bring down its moisture content to less than 10% (w.b.) through a curing (drying) process. Still a primitive and inefficient (operating efficiency level of about 5–15%) smoking method (using traditional bhatti) is being used for drying of large-cardamom resulting in huge (estimated 20,000 MT/yr) wastage of fuel wood and poor (charred and blackened) quality product. This paper gives a brief description of efforts made to obtain basic drying parameters of large-cardamom (which is a pre-requisite for dryer design) under different operating conditions.