Carbonized Bacterial Cellulose Research Articles

Morphology evolution of bacterial cellulose carbon and loaded with MnO2 microspheres for high performance supercapacitors

The rapid development of economy and technology caused numerous irreversible effects on the environment, and the rational use and storage of existing resources have became an indispensable process in modern development. Energy storage through supercapacitors can effectively alleviate part of the energy crisis. Here, the effects of heating rates on the morphology of carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) carbon and its electrochemical properties were studied and CBC-5 (heating rate of 5 ℃/min) with porous structure was confirmed to be supporting material for loading MnO2. The specific capacitance of CBC-5@MnO2 composites was high up to 190 F g−1 at 1 A g−1, and its capacitance retention rate was up to 96.6% after 8000 cycles. The superior electrochemical performance cannot be achieved without the cooperative effect among the metal oxides and carbon materials, which also benefits from the fast transport of ions and electrons in solution. The assembled CBC-5//CBC-5@MnO2-6 h hybrid supercapacitors exhibited largest energy density and power density values of 44.5 Wh kg−1 (at 0.2 A g−1) and 11111.1 W kg−1 (at 10 A g−1), respectively. The assembled button cells can light up small LED bulbs for at least 10 min. The porous bacterial cellulose carbon can provided possibilities for high electrode design.

Carbonized bacterial cellulose as free-standing cathode host and protective interlayer for high-performance potassium-sulfur batteries with enhanced kinetics and stable operation

Due to the limited capacity of Lithium (Li)-ion batteries and the scarce reserves of Li, potassium-sulfur battery (KSB) seems to be the most appealing candidate for next-generation advanced energy storage systems owing to the abundance of sulfur as well as potassium in addition to the high capacity offered by sulfur cathodes. However, the development of KSB is in the nascent stage, primarily because of the highly unstable and reactive potassium anode, which needs special consideration for its protection. To overcome this, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, we introduce the free-standing carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) not only as an anode-protective interlayer but also as a cathode host. Further, the K2S6 catholyte is used as an active material, enabling the even distribution of active sulfur and high sulfur loading. Benefitting from the superior physicochemical properties of CBC and the introduction of it as a protective interlayer, the KSB, as developed, can be cycled for continuous 500 cycles even at high current rates such as 2 and 5C, respectively. The cell with CBC as a cathode host and an interlayer retained 73% and 62% of initial capacity after 300 and 500 cycles at 1 and 2C, respectively. Potassium striping and plating test show that the CBC interlayer effectively enables uniform nucleation and growth, reducing dendrite formation. The first-principles calculations are also performed to substantiate these advancements in electrochemical performances. This study may pave the way for the practical realization of KSB with stable operation and long cycle life.

Construction of oxygen vacancy-rich ZnO@carbon nanofiber aerogels as a free-standing anode for superior lithium storage

The development of next-generation high-capacity freestanding materials as electrodes in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has significant potential. Here, oxygen vacancy-rich ZnO (Ov-ZnO) deposited on carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) aerogels is developed via in-situ uniformly growing ZIF-8-NH2 particles on CBC aerogels, followed by the hydrazine reduction and pyrolysis. The CBC serves as a free-standing skeleton to disperse and support ZIF-8-NH2 derived ZnO while the introduction of oxygen vacancies can effectively promote the internal ion/electron transfer. As a result, the obtained free-standing aerogels (Ov-ZnO@CBC) displays a reversible capacity of 710 mAh g−1 at 1 A g−1 after 1000 cycles, which is superior to ZnO@CBC without hydrazine reduction treatment. Furthermore, the assembled Li free-standing full cell using the Ov-ZnO@CBC composite as the anode and BC@LiFePO4 (BC@LFP) as the cathode exhibits an outstanding cycling performance of 150 mAh g−1 after 100 cycles at 0.1 A g−1, displaying satisfactory lithium-ion storage capability. It is noteworthy that both Ov-ZnO@CBC and BC@LFP are obtained in the form of a free-standing aerogel. This work offers a strategy to prepare high-capacity and long-cycle self-supporting aerogel-based electrodes for flexible LIBs.

Carbonized Bacterial Cellulose-Derived Binder-Free, Flexible, and Free-Standing Cathode Host for High-Performance Stable Potassium–Sulfur Batteries

In search of improved advanced energy storage systems to meet our fast-growing energy demands for large-scale applications, potassium–sulfur batteries (KSBs) provide an essential alternative due to their high specific capacity apart from the low cost and abundance of potassium and sulfur. However, the insulating nature of sulfur, volume changes, and shuttle effect impede the development of these batteries. Further, the binder, carbon additives, and current collector used in the assembly of cells in a conventional approach decrease the energy density of cells. To overcome these challenges, we propose a binder-free and free-standing carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) as a cathode host that not only provides a conducting pathway but also has a porous network that is resilient to volume change. To ensure the uniform loading of sulfur, CBC was dipped into the sulfur/carbon disulfide solution, followed by melt diffusion at 160 °C to prepare a sulfur-infused CBC (S-CBC) cathode. This S-CBC cathode with an interconnected fiber network delivers a significantly high reversible capacity of 1311 mA h g–1 at a current density of 50 mA g–1. While connected for long-term cycling, the potassium sulfur cell delivers an initial reversible capacity of 475 mA h g–1 at 100 mA g–1. Once the cell is stabilized after 80 cycles, it maintains a capacity of 123 mA h g–1 with a capacity retention of 86% after 500 cycles. This enhanced electrochemical performance of flexible and free-standing S-CBC cathode is further analyzed using first-principles calculations. Moreover, the efficacy of the S-CBC cathode is also tested under high sulfur loading (1.6 and 2.4 mg cm–2, respectively) for the practical development of KSBs.

Simultaneous realization of high sulfur utilization and lithium dendrite-free via dual-effect kinetic regulation strategy toward lithium-sulfur batteries

With the high theoretical specific capacity and energy density, lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) have been intensively studied as promising candidates for energy storage devices. However, LSBs are largely hindered by inferior sulfur utilization and uncontrollable dendritic growth. Herein, a hierarchical functionalization strategy of stepwise catalytic-adsorption-conversion for sulfur species via the synergetic of the efficiently catalytic host cathode and light multifunctional interlayer has been proposed to concurrently address the issues arising on the dual sides of the LSBs. The multi-layer SnS2 micro-flowers embedded into the natural three-dimensional (3D) interconnected carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) nanofibers are fabricated as the sulfur host that provides numerous catalytic sites for the rapid catalytic conversion of sulfur species. Moreover, the distinctive CBC-based SnO2–SnS2 heterostructure network accompanied high conductive carbon nanofibers as the multifunctional interlayer promotes the rapid anchoring-diffusion-conversion of lithium polysulfides, Li+ flux redistribution, and uniform Li deposition. LSBs equipped with our strategy exhibit a high reversible capacity of 1361.5 mA h g−1 at 0.2 C and superior cycling stability with an ultra-low capacity fading of 0.031% per cycle in 1000 cycles at 1.5 C and 0.046% at 3 C. A favorable specific capacity of 859.5 mA h g−1 at 0.3 C is achieved with a high sulfur mass loading of 5.2 mg cm−2, highlighting the potential of practical application. The rational design in this work can provide a feasible solution for high-performance LSBs and promote the development of advanced energy storage devices.

Interlaced CoOx Nanosheets Composited with Reduced Graphene Oxide and Carbonized Bacterial Cellulose as Anode Materials for Lithium‐ion Batteries

AbstractConstructing peculiar carbon‐based networks built from hybrid structures has been considered as an effective approach to establish a superior scaffold for immobilization of nanoparticles. Herein, we demonstrate a facile and green approach to prepare cobalt oxides (CoOx)‐based anode, which is realized by rationally exploiting unique properties of carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) and graphene (GN). The unique configuration of GN/CoOx/CBC composite fully enables utilization of the synergistic effects from both three‐dimensional nanofibrous network and two‐dimensional “flexible confinement” function. Benefiting from their intriguing structural features, the synthesized composite is directly used as electrode for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs), and achieves superior flexibility and reliability, enhanced energy/power density and outstanding cycling stability.

Hydrophobic-action-driven removal of six organophosphorus pesticides from tea infusion by modified carbonized bacterial cellulose

The abuse of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) in tea planting makes it easy to transfer from tea into its infusion, bringing potential health risks to consumers. Thus, it is essential to adopt reliable techniques to remove OPPs from tea infusion. In this study, three treatment methods were used to modify carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) to improve its adsorption performance. Among them, CBC treated by hydrazine hydrate (N-CBC) had the best adsorption effect, whose removal rate for dicrotophos is 13 times that of CBC. The in-depth study of adsorption mechanism proved that hydrophobic interaction dominated the adsorption of OPPs onto N-CBC. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm model were more suitable to describe the process. Additionally, there were no significant changes in tea infusion quality after N-CBC treatment. This work clarifies that N-CBC benefitted from simple preparation method, excellent adsorption performance and unique adsorption mechanism has potential applications in tea infusion.

Graphene Composite via Bacterial Cellulose Assisted Liquid Phase Exfoliation for Sodium-Ion Batteries.

One of the most critical challenges for commercialization of sodium-ion battery (SIB) is to develop carbon anodes with high capacity and good rate performance. Graphene would be an excellent SIB anode candidate due to its success in various kinds of batteries. Liquid-phase exfoliation (LPE) method is an inexpensive, facile and potentially scalable method to produce less-defected graphene sheets. In this work, we developed an improved, dispersant-assisted LPE method to produce graphene composite materials from raw graphite with high yield and better quality for SIB anode. Here, bacterial cellulose (BC) was used as a green dispersant/stabilizer for LPE, a "spacer" for anti-restacking, as well as a carbon precursor in the composite. As a result, the carbonized BC (CBC)/LPE graphene (LEGr) presented improved performance compared to composite with graphene prepared by Hummers method. It exhibited a specific capacity of 233 mAh g-1 at a current density of 20 mA g-1, and 157 mAh g-1 after 200 cycles at a high current density of 100 mA g-1 with capacity retention rate of 87.73%. This method not only provides new insight in graphene composites preparation, but also takes a new step in the exploration of anode materials for sodium-ion batteriesSIBs.

Flexible and free-standing bacterial cellulose derived cathode host and separator for lithium-sulfur batteries

This study demonstrates flexible, ultra-high rate, and long cycle life lithium‑sulfur batteries using bacterial cellulose (BC) derived cathode host as well as separator. The work also includes a new strategy to use active sulfur in the form of catholyte added directly to the electrolyte for improved sulfur utilization. The fabricated LiS cell with carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) as a cathode host and BC as a separator (CBC@BC) delivers an impressive capacity of 740 mAh g−1 at 1C. It retains a capacity of 310 mAh g−1 even at an ultra-high rate of 4C. To have commercial adoption of CBC@BC, we tested LiS cells with a high areal loading of 5 mg cm−2. The cell shows promising electrochemical performance for 500 cycles with a capacity retention of 82 %. Furthermore, first-principle calculations are performed to understand the interaction of soluble lithium-polysulfides with bacterial cellulose-derived material.

Ultra-high-rate lithium-sulfur batteries with high sulfur loading enabled by Mn2O3-carbonized bacterial cellulose composite as a cathode host

Lithium-sulfur batteries have received significant attention due to their high specific capacity and natural abundance of the sulfur cathode. However, the notorious issue of higher-order lithium-polysulfides dissolution causes inferior cycling and poor electrochemical performance. To overcome the challenge, here, biodegradable and environmentally friendly carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) is used as the sulfur host. Further, Mn2O3 is incorporated in bacterial cellulose using hydrothermal synthesis and investigated as a sulfur host. The composite is prepared by a facile encapsulation “melt-diffusion” strategy. The high electronic conductivity of the CBC provides an efficient pathway to carry out redox reactions, and Mn2O3 helps to restrain and convert higher-order lithium-polysulfides to lower-order lithium-polysulfides. Further, the first-principle density functional theory calculation is performed to investigate and understand the role of carbon (CBC) and Mn2O3 in the host material. The lithium-sulfur cell with Mn2O3@CBC cathode host delivers a significantly high initial reversible capacity of 1150 mAh g−1(cathode) (i.e., 1450 mAh g−1(sulfur)) at 0.1 C. It retains a reversible capacity of 254 mAh g−1(cathode) (i.e., 554 mAh g−1(sulfur)) even at the ultra-high rate of 15.0 C. Furthermore, to achieve a practical high energy density and its commercial adoption, we tested lithium-sulfur cells with high areal sulfur loading of 4.2 mg cm−2. The cell shows promising electrochemical performance for long 500 cycles with a capacity retention of 70%. The cell performance is competitive and superior to the current state-of-the-art lithium-sulfur cells reported in the literature.

A counter electrode modified with renewable carbonized biomass for an all-inorganic CsPbBr3 perovskite solar cell

The cost associated with hole-transporting materials (HTMs) and electrodes made of noble metals is a recurrent problem for the widespread application of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Biomass-derived carbons are green materials that have been incorporated in the electrodes of diverse electrochemical devices to reduce cost, improve environmental sustainability, and augment the specific surface area (SSA). Here, carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) and carbonized macadamia nutshell (CMNS) were combined with commercial carbon paste (CP) to fabricate counter electrodes (CEs) integrated into highly-stable all-inorganic CsPbBr3 PSCs synthesized by thermal evaporation. When electrically-conductive CP was mixed with either 0.1% CBC or CMNS, the power conversion efficiency was improved to 4.76% and 6.18%, respectively, compared to 4.45% for a PSC equipped with pure CP. The better performance of CMNS versus CBC in the CEs can be explained by a larger SSA, a more suitable work function, and a lower sheet resistance. The outstanding surface area of CMNS is likely to improve hole scavenging efficiency in the PSCs by increasing the number of contacts with CsPbBr3. The long-term stability of the all-inorganic CsPbBr3 PSC at high temperature was also improved with the CP CE modified with CMNS. These results demonstrate that adding CBC or CMNS to CP for the fabrication of CEs in a suitable ratio improves the photoelectric properties of all-inorganic PSCs and thus opens possibilities for novel applications for renewable and earth-abundant biomass-derived carbons.

Bifunctional tin modified SnO2 nanospheres embedded biomass-derived carbon network for polysulfides adsorption-conversion in lithium-sulfur batteries

Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) have been intensively studied as promising candidates of energy storage devices due to the high theoretical specific capacity. Unfortunately, the insulating nature and shuttling effect of sulfur are crucial obstacles. In this study, a “network-sphere” structure of in-situ reduced Sn modifying SnO2 nanospheres embedded in carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) porous nanofiber network (CBC@SnO2-Sn) is designed via two-step thermal treatment as 3D sulfur host material for LSBs to overcome these issues. The CBC exerts a positive role in alleviating the volume change as well as accelerating the electron and ion transfer. More significantly, the uniformly distributed SnO2 nanospheres with in-situ reduced Sn not only provide numerous active sites for chemisorption of polysulfides, but also accelerate the redox kinetics by catalyzing the polysulfides conversion, coordinately alleviating the shuttle effect during cycling. The CBC@SnO2-Sn/S cathode delivers an outstanding electrochemical performance with a high initial discharge capacity of 1573.6 mA h g−1 at 0.1 A g−1 and superior cycling stability (564.6 mA h g−1 after 500 cycles at 3 A g−1 with the coulombic efficiency kept above 99%). The novel structure, with synergy effect between conductive network and polysulfide adsorption-conversion, creates a promising strategy in improving the electrochemical performance for LSBs and other energy storage applications.

Corrosion-resistant porous hydrophobic PVDF-CBC foam for the treatment of oil-water separation

Inspired by the natural biological structure, the superhydrophobic phenomenon has attracted the wide attention of researchers, and superhydrophobicity has been applied in bionic technology. In this study, a novel hydrophobic/underwater lipophilic carbonized bacterial cellulose-PVDF foam was prepared using polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and bacterial cellulose (BC) as the matrix by a simple and green one-step synthesis method. This method is simple and green, does not use any toxic solvents, and solves the technical problems due to PVDF's solubility limitations. Carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) has a three-dimensional porosity. PVDF has the characteristics of low surface energy. We have prepared a PVDF-CBC foam that combines the advantages of CBC and PVDF, which exhibits hydrophobicity/underwater lipophilicity. The obtained porous PVDF-CBC foam has good hydrophobicity (water contact angle is 142° ± 3.2). The foam has excellent adsorption performance, and the adsorption capacity of cooking oil can reach more than 600%, and the adsorption capacity of organic solvent is up to 923%. The PVDF-CBC foam can be reused by releasing the solvent absorbed during the adsorption process in ethanol. After ten cycles, the adsorption capacity did not change much. In addition, PVDF-CBC foam exhibits excellent corrosion resistance even under harsh environmental conditions. The adsorption capacity of the foam after soaking can still reach 96.2%, which proved that the porous PVDF-CBC foam had a high potential in oil-water separation treatment and will become a reference for future work.

Green and up-scalable fabrication of superior anodes for lithium storage based on biomass bacterial cellulose

An extremely facile and up-scalable approach has been proposed to disperse ferric grains onto bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibers. The BC-induced hydrolytic deposition can be performed at room temperature without using any organic solvents, toxic reagents, or complicated apparatuses, enabling a green pathway in realizing industrialization. After carbonization, the randomly oriented carbonized BC (CBC) nanofibers transmit the electrons throughout the electrode, while the inherited reticular morphology boosts the thorough penetration of electrolyte. Moreover, the sufficient space created by interconnected CBC nanofibers is able to accommodate the volume change of the nanosized Fe3O4 active materials during repeated Li+ intercalation and deintercalation. As a result, the as-prepared Fe3O4/CBC composites deliver the superior electrochemical performance as the free-standing anodes in Li-ion batteries (LIBs), including the impressive reversible capacity of 702 mAh g−1 after 400 cycles at 400 mA g−1, decent rate capability with capacity of 437 mAh g−1 at 2000 mA g−1, and a long cycling lifespan up to 1000 cycles at 800 mA g−1. This work provides a scalable and green approach to fabricate high-performance LIBs anode with the natural sustainable biomass.

Core-shell heterostructured nanofibers consisting of Fe7S8 nanoparticles embedded into S-doped carbon nanoshells for superior electromagnetic wave absorption

Electromagnetic wave absorption has been of great significance with the imminent era dominated by high-tech electronic products. Engineering microstructural configurations with microwave responding components are believed to be an effective approach in optimizing the electromagnetic wave absorbing performance. Herein, we developed a core–shell fibrous nanocomposite via cellulose-assisted ferric deposition, followed by in-situ wrapping with sulfur-containing polymer. After one-step carbonization, a ternary core–shell heterostructure was formed, in which the Fe7S8 nanoparticles were embedded in-between the S-doped carbon (SdC) nanoshells and carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) nanofibers. The resultant SdC@Fe/CBC composites can dramatically dissipate the incident electromagnetic wave through multiple-interfacial polarization and sulfur dipolar polarization. Additionally, the extensive magnetic domains exposed from the nano-sized Fe7S8 further consume electromagnetic energy by magnetic resonance. Consequently, the SdC@Fe/CBC composites exhibit minimum reflection loss of −64.1 dB and a broadband effective absorption (8.5 GHz) with a low filler loading at 5.0 wt% only.

Free-standing SnS/carbonized cellulose film as durable anode for lithium-ion batteries

Metal sulfides have recently attracted broad attention for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) owing to their high theoretical capacity and long lifetime. However, the inferior structural integrity and low electron conductivity of metal sulfides limit their practical applications. A feasible strategy is to distribute these materials in conductive carbonaceous substrates with shapeable morphology. Here we report the design of free-standing films of tin sulfide (SnS) nanosheets distributed uniformly on carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) nanofibers. The SnS/CBC composites possess three dimensional interconnected nanostructures, which is crucial for the high conductivity and high lithium storage capacity. LIB using SnS/CBC as anode exhibits a reversible capacity of 872 mA h g−1 at 100 mA g-1 after 100 cycles, and the capacity remains as high as 527 mA h g−1 at 2000 mA g−1 after 1000 cycles. The free-standing sulfide-based nanocomposites with unique nanostructure composition and flexibility could be utilized as promising electrode materials for future LIB systems.

Construction of silver nanoparticles anchored in carbonized bacterial cellulose with enhanced antibacterial properties

Carbon materials have been widely used in the field of water treatment. However, a drawback of this kind of materials is that bacteria breeding on their surface may deteriorate water quality. Herein, antibacterial carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) composites with well-dispersed silver nanoparticle were synthesized, using bacterial cellulose (BC) as inexpensive and abundant source of carbon. The formed composites (Ag@CBC) were characterized by various physicochemical characterization. The results showed that the Ag nanoparticle amount, surface and porous structure of the Ag@CBC were dependent on initial concentration of AgNO3 solution. As an antibacterial material, Ag@CBC samples exhibited excellent antibacterial activity. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of Ag@CBC with 1.9 % Ag such as 12 μg/mL (against S. aureus) and 8 μg/mL (against E. coli), which have very promising application in water purification.

Efficient anchoring of SrTiO3 on the cracked surface of carbonized bacterial cellulose for enhanced photocatalytic activities

A series of thickness-controlled SrTiO3 (commonly abbreviated ST) anchored on carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC) was successfully prepared by a novel route of freeze-drying assisted crystallization/carbonization. For the first time, the cross-linked bacterial cellulose served as a carbon source as well as structure-directing scaffold for the construction of ST/CBC composites. Characterizations exhibited cracks and defects on the surface of CBC which provided ideal anchoring sites for the dispersion and crystallization of ST. Additionally, the relationship between morphology and photocatalytic activity of ST/CBC was carefully investigated by photocatalytic reduction of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and degradation of tetracycline in water. This unique biomass-derived carbon fibers provide an ideal platform for further design of perovskite based materials with enhanced catalytic performance.

Facile synthesis of Cu nanoparticles encapsulated into carbonized bacterial cellulose with excellent oxidation resistance and stability

A facile one-step method is proposed to prepare well-dispersed Cu nanoparticles (Cu-NPs) encapsulated into carbonized bacterial cellulose (CBC). Bacterial cellulose (BC) is employed as a template, carbon source and the product of thermal decomposition of BC functions as reducing agent and protecting agent, with Cu nitrate employed as the metal precursors. The Cu-NPs are uniformly dispersed in the fibrous network of CBC and the size of the Cu-NPs can be controlled by regulating the experimental conditions. The detailed structures and morphologies of Cu-NPs encapsulated into CBC are systematically characterized. The results demonstrate that the obtained composites are perfect core-shell structure, which show excellent oxidation resistance and stability.

Low-cost high-performance asymmetric supercapacitors based on ribbon-like Ni(OH)2 and biomass carbon nanofibers enriched with nitrogen and phosphorus

Herein, we report a facile and low-cost synthesis of nitrogen and phosphorus co-doped carbonized bacterial cellulose (N, P-CBC) via in-situ soaking bacteria cellulose and carbonization method. The N, P-CBC yielded a high specific capacitance of 232 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 and 92.7% rate capability retention at 5 A g−1. Moreover, the asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC) device was further fabricated with N, P-CBC as the negative electrode and Ni(OH)2, prepared using a simple chemical precipitate method as the positive electrode. The fabricated ASC device provided a maximum working voltage of 1.6 V and high energy density (41.9 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 799.2 W kg−1). The device exhibits remarkable specific capacitance (118 F g−1 at 1 A g−1) and excellent cycle lifetime (76.3% specific capacitance after 5000 cycles). Such an excellent electrochemical performance demonstrated that the as-prepared N, P-CBC and Ni(OH)2 electrodes will be both great potential candidates for supercapacitors.