C45 Carbon Steel Research Articles

Surface Topography in Cutting-Speed-Direction Ultrasonic-Assisted Turning.

Ultrasonic vibration has been employed to assist in turning, introducing intermittent machining to reduce average cutting force, minimize tool wear, and enhance machining efficiency, thereby improving surface roughness. However, achieving intermittent cutting necessitates specific conditions, with a cutting speed or feed rate falling below the critical speed associated with the ultrasonic vibration parameters. This study presents a theoretical model for surface formation in cutting-speed-direction ultrasonic-assisted turning (CUAT), covering both continuous and intermittent machining regimes. Experimental validation was conducted on C45 carbon steel and 201 stainless steel to demonstrate the applicability of the theoretical model across different materials. Digital microscope analysis revealed 3D topography consistency with the theoretical formula. Surface roughness evaluations were performed for both CUAT and CT (conventional turning) methods. The results indicated a significant reduction in roughness Ra for C45 steel samples machined with CUAT, up to 80% compared to CT at a cutting speed of 20 m/min, while only exhibiting slight fluctuations when turning 201 stainless steel. Detailed analysis and explanation of these phenomena are presented herein.

Synthesis and study of the inhibitory properties of a new Schiff base for C45 carbon steel in 1 M HCl

A newly Schiff base 1, 13-bis-[(4-dimethylamino) benzaldehyde 4, 7, 10-trioxatridecane-diimine] (DABT) was synthesized and characterized on the basis of the results of FT-IR, mass spectroscopy (MS), 1HNMR and 13CNMR. The desired performance of the organic compound DABT which is easy, inexpensive to prepare and eco-friendly, as a corrosion inhibitor for C45 carbon steel in 1 M HCl medium was evaluated using weight loss, potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. The results suggest that the corrosion inhibition effectiveness increases with increasing inhibitor concentration and decreases with increasing temperature. The polarization experiments demonstrate that DABT exhibits the characteristics of a mixed-type inhibitor and follows the Langmuir isotherm in its adsorption behavior. Contact angle measurement revealed that the inhibitor on the surface of the carbon steel is hydrophobic. The synergistic effect of DABT has been investigated; inhibitory efficiency rises with increasing concentration of KI by competitive adsorption to form a layer of protection on the metal surface. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) combined with scanning electron microscope (SEM) was utilized to interpret the morphological study of the carbon steel surface. A good correlation was found between theoretical [Density functional theory (DFT), molecular dynamics simulation (MDS)] and experimental findings.

Influence of Cr + Si content variation on cutting behavior of TiAlCrSiN HPPMS coatings

As high power pulse magnetron sputtering (HPPMS) technology is becoming popular in cutting tool industry, the development of nanocomposite coating systems such as TiAlCrSiN with this technology presents a new research avenue. Here, the combined effect of Cr and Si contents on properties and cutting behavior of high Al content TiAlCrSiN HPPMS coatings needs further investigation. For this purpose, three HPPMS coatings with Al/Ti ratio x = 1.4–1.5 and varying Cr + Si content, namely (Ti28Al40Cr16Si16)N, (Ti30Al43Cr17Si10)N and (Ti36Al54Cr5Si5)N, were deposited on cemented carbide substrates. In addition to basic characterization, the fracture behavior of the coatings was characterized by scratch tests. The cutting behavior of the coated inserts was exemplarily investigated during dry cutting of normalized medium carbon steel C45 with cutting speed vc = 80 m/min, feed rate f = 0.12 mm and cutting depth ap = 0.8 mm. The tool damage over the cutting time of tc = 35–40 min, as per the tool condition, was observed using light microscopy. Moreover, the damage mechanisms were analyzed in detail at the end of the cutting test using scanning electron microscopy. All coatings showed comparable indentation hardness HIT and indentation modulus EIT. However, an increased Cr + Si content amplified the brittle fracture of the coating under sliding load of scratch test. Moreover, the workpiece material C45 showed a higher adhesion tendency to cutting insert with high Cr + Si content TiAlCrSiN coatings during cutting tests. The tool wear and built-up edge formation increased due to the combined effect of workpiece adhesions and amplified brittle fracture of the coating at considered cutting speed. On the other hand, the inserts with low Cr + Si content coating exhibited better cutting performance and reduced built-up edge formation based on the improved fracture behavior of the coating and lower adhesion tendency of workpiece material to the corresponding coated insert.

In Situ Fatigue Damage Monitoring by Means of Nonlinear Ultrasonic Measurements

In the present work, the results of acoustic nonlinear response of ultrasonic wave propagation when monitoring the progress of damage induced by fatigue on notched C45 carbon steel specimens have been reported. Two ultrasound probes were fixed to the specimens during the tests. The input signal was sinusoidal type, while the corresponding ultrasound response signal was acquired and recorded at each stage of the test by means of a digital oscilloscope. A nonlinear frequency study was performed on the acquired data to evaluate the change in the second- and third-order nonlinearity coefficients of β1 and β2, respectively, on the tested specimens. Ultrasonic results were correlated to plastic strain at the notch tip in the initial phases of fatigue and stiffness degradation. The results showed a significant increase in second-order nonlinearity β1 in the early stages of fatigue life. Subsequently, starting from about 30–40% of the fatigue life, the nonlinearity of β1 increases. Before final failure, from 80 to 85% of fatigue life, the second-order nonlinearity further increases in the crack propagation stages. The nonlinear parameter of the third-order β2 was less sensitive to damage than the parameter β1, showing a rapid increase only starting from approximately 80 to 85% of the fatigue life. The proposed method proved to be valid for detective damage induced by fatigue and to predict the lifetime of metal materials.

Investigation of surface topography in ultrasonic-assisted turning of C45 carbon steel

This study compares ultrasonic-assisted turning to conventional turning in terms of their effects on surface texture and cutting forces during the machining of C45 carbon steel. Experiments were conducted on a lathe equipped with a 1000 W ultrasonic generator running at 20 kHz. Ultrasonic-assisted turning results in small, evenly distributed spherical scratches on the workpiece, while conventional turning leads to long, uneven cutting marks. Significantly, ultrasonic-assisted turning achieves a notably smoother surface finish than conventional turning. As the depth of cut increases, conventional turning causes increasingly uneven surface topography, whereas ultrasonic-assisted turning maintains surface stability and uniformity. Moreover, cutting forces see a substantial rise of approximately 40% with conventional turning as the depth of cut increases. In contrast, ultrasonic-assisted turning witnesses a marginal force increase of about 15.84%.

Enhancement of corrosion protection of metal carbon steel C45 and stainless steel 316 by using inhibitor (Schiff base) in sea water

This research has presented a solution to the problem faced by alloys: the corrosion problem, by reducing corrosion and enhancing protection by using an inhibitor (Schiff base). The inhibitor (Schiff base) was synthesized by reacting of the substrates materials (4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde and 4-aminoantipyrine). It was diagnosed by infrared technology IR, where the IR spectrum and through the visible beams proved that the Schiff base was well formed and with high purity. The corrosion behavior of carbon steel and stainless steel in a saline medium (artificial seawater 3.5%NaCl) before and after using the inhibitor at four temperatures: 20, 30, 40, and 50 C° was studied by using three electrodes potentiostat. The corrosion behavior was studied by cathode and anode polarization through which all corrosion parameters were investigated which include: corrosion current icorr (1341× 10-7- 5393 × 10-9A/cm2), corrosion potential Ecorr (-1.031- -0.227 mV vs SCE) , corrosion rates CR (0.658-0.007 mm.y-1), inhibition efficiency %IE (92-98%), and energy activation barriers Ea (4.709-26.733 kJ/mole). The thermodynamic and kinetic properties of the corrosion behavior of these two metals under study, which include: enthalpy ∆H*(2.153-24.176 kJ/mole), entropy ∆S*(-197 -156 J/mole), and free Gibbs energy ∆G*(59.87-74.56 kJ/mole) before and after using the inhibitor, were also studied.

Microstructure and properties of AlCr and AlCrFe coatings deposited by magnetron sputtering

In this work, AlCr and AlCrFe coatings were deposited via magnetron sputtering on technical substrates of carbon steel C45 and titanium grade 2. The coatings feature an amorphous structure, a thickness of 3–4 μm, and are uniform in terms of thickness and chemical composition. No major defects were visible at the interface; however, there is no diffusion at the interface, which indicates the adhesive type of bonding and results in relatively low adhesion. The coatings are characterized by a hardness of about 8–10 GPa and a Young modulus above 150 GPa. Both values are slightly higher for steel substrate. The coatings assure good corrosion resistance for steel substrate while underperforming those of Ti grade 2.

Corrosion behavior of HDA (hot-dip aluminized) carbon steel C45 half immersed in molten salts (NaCl, Na2SO4) isothermally at 973 K

Aluminized carbon steel C45 samples of 0.44 wt.% carbon content were immersed half in a molten salt mixture (NaCl + Na2SO4 with a ratio of 1:3) at a temperature of around 973 K over three different exposure periods: 8, 24, and 72 h. It was observed that a new intermetallic layer (emergent layer) formed at the interface between the steel substrate and the pre-formed intermetallic layers as a result of further outward and inward diffusion of Al, Fe, and C, as indicated by a metallographic study involving SEM combined with EDS spot analysis and elemental analysis. It was also observed that flake-like new phases precipitated in both halves, largely composed of Fe–Al–C–O elementary components, where presumably, the steel C45's high carbon content and the prolonged exposure to high temperatures contributed to further chemical reactions between the elements of HDA specimens and the molten salts’ aggressive Cl and S elements. Moreover, they accelerated the rate of oxidation/corrosion of the hot-dip aluminized C45 steel specimens at high temperatures. Gibbs free energies calculations of some of the corrosion products confirmed the composition of the oxide scale detected experimentally.

Effect of Heat Treatment on the Resulting Dimensional Characteristics of the C45 Carbon Steel after Turning

The presented article deals with the influence of the heat treatment of C45 steel on the surface quality after turning. Turning is a machining technology used to prepare specific geometrical characteristics of surface and dimensional quality. In the present paper, the same turning conditions were used for the turning treatment of differently heat-treated steels. The soft annealed state, normalized state, hardened state, quenched and tempered at 530 °C state and quenched and tempered at 660 °C state have been analyzed. By using this approach, it has been possible to evaluate the effects of hardening and machining on the resulting parameters after turning (roughness, cylindricity and circularity). The highest hardness was observed in the steel after the hardening process (694 ± 9 HV 10). The hardening has negatively influenced the surface quality. The high hardness was related to martensite formation and caused a damage to the cutting edge of the cut insert used, leading to a significant change in geometrical accuracy. The cylindricity change achieved 0.15 ± 0.03 mm which was significantly higher compared to the theoretical value of the diameter of the machined steel bar. An inaccuracy was also observed in diameter dimension. These inaccuracies were caused by the wear of the cutting edge of the tool used in cutting parameters setting.

Formation of coatings with technologies using concentrated energy stream

Abstract A number of modern surface processing methods use an energy flux. The examples include electro-spark deposition (ESD) and laser beam processing (LBP). The work concerns the study of Cu-Mo coatings deposited on C45 carbon steel, which were then eroded with a laser beam. The analysis included the analysis of the microstructure, measurements of macrogeometry and microhardness, corrosion resistance tests of selected areas after laser treatment. The coatings were applied with ELFA-541 and subjected to Nd:YAG laser treatment with variable laser parameters. The problem presented in the work can be used to extend the knowledge of the areas of application of ESD coatings, especially in sliding friction pairs.

Characterization of Fe–Al intermetallic phases formed during hot-dip Al coating on carbon steel C45

Characterization of Fe–Al intermetallic phases formed during hot-dip Al coating on carbon steel C45

Effect of overlap length on the strength of adhesive joints of steel sheets

The study evaluates the shear strength of the single-lap adhesive joints made of C45 carbon steel. The influence of the overlap length on the shear strength of the adhesive joint was tested. The elongation of the samples was also tested. Before the bonding process, the samples were treated with P180 abrasive paper and degreased. The adhesive joints were made using the Epidian 53/Z1/100:10 adhesive composition. The strength tests were carried out on a Zwick/Roell Z150 testing machine. The maximum value of the shear strength was obtained for the lap Lz1 = 13 mm and the minimum for Lz4 = 19 mm.

Cracking mechanism of brittle FeCoNiCrAl HEA coating using extreme high-speed laser cladding

FeCoNiCrAl high entropy alloys (HEAs) are regarded as promising coating materials for traditional steel. However, the brittle nature always contributes to the cracking of the equiatomic FeCoNiCrAl HEA coating. In this work, FeCoNiCrAl coatings on C45 carbon steel and 304 stainless steel (304SS) pipes were fabricated using extreme high-speed laser cladding (EHLA) with a cladding speed of 50 m/min. The results showed the high-hardness character of the two coatings on C45 and 304SS substrates. The C45 substrate showed a remarkable effect on the cracking of the coating. The martensitic transformation of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the C45 substrate was considered the main factor contributing to cracking of the coating. The finite element method showed that the martensite transformation of C45 expanded the volume and increased the hardness of the HAZ. This restricted the plastic deformation of the substrate and increased the tensile stress and cracking tendency of the coating. As a martensitic transformation did not occur in 304SS, the low-hardness substrate effectively relieved the tensile stress in the coating and avoided cracking. • The MT of HAZ of C45 contributed the cracking of EHLA HEA coating • MT increased the volume and hardness of HAZ of C45 substrate. • Volume expansion and hardening of HAZ restricted the interfacial plastic deformation. • High interfacial stress of coating resulted in the crack initiation.

Fatigue failure of ball joint heads connected to the weight holder mechanism in railway applications

The premature causes of failure of ball joint heads attached to the weight bearing bar used on high speed trains, which were continuously under traction, have been studied, with an average load of 47.5 kN plus a cyclical load of ± 7.5 kN. Ball joint heads made of C45 (AISI 1045) carbon steel show a pearlite microstructure (80–90 %) with ferrite surrounding the prior-austenite grain boundaries. Two different external elliptical-shaped fatigue cracks of 14.5 mm and 7.7 mm nucleated in opposite positions on the cylindrical surface of the threaded shank prior to catastrophic cleavage failure. The Griffith equation applied in this study gave a value of 37 MPa for the fracture stress (σf) produced by the largest crack, which multiplied by the section of the thread is equivalent to a load of 37 kN, similar to the applied service load. In addition, the critical stress intensity factor (KIc) calculation yielded a value of 8.8 MPa m1/2, this lower KIc value was determined to be responsible for the large fatigue crack produced and the cleavage fracture causing the C45 carbon steel bolt joint failure. The pearlite/ferrite microstructure contributed to crack growth, since this type of microstructure in high carbon steels has lower strength and lower toughness than a tempered martensite microstructure. Using Paris equation, the cycles to failure were 1.5 × 105, which in service lifetime was an approximated 6 × 106 km for the piece to finally fail.

Rotary friction welded C45 to 16NiCr6 steel rods: statistical optimization coupled to mechanical and microstructure approaches

In the present work, the dissimilar joints between C45 carbon steel and nickel-chromium 16NiCr6 steel rods were produced using rotary friction welding process. Statistical analysis based on response surface methodology (RSM), microstructural examination using scanning electron microscopy with backscattered electron diffraction (EBSD) and mechanical tests were performed to investigate the friction weld joints. The results showed that friction time and rotation speed were the most effective parameters on the weld joint quality with the highest t-ration of − 4.27, where the maximum bending strength of 1406.9 MPa was obtained at 2000 rpm for 13 s friction time. Increasing friction time to 13 s resulted in remarkable decrease in grain size (about 35%) at the weld interface, which increased the hardness (350HV0.1) and elastic modulus (260 GPa).Graphical abstract

Characterization of Hot-Dip Aluminized C45 Carbon Steel before and after Cyclic Heating in Air

Characterization of Hot-Dip Aluminized C45 Carbon Steel before and after Cyclic Heating in Air

PREDICTING THE ROLE OF LOW AND HIGH SALT CONCENTRATION ON CORROSION OF CARBON STEEL C45

The corrosion behavior of carbon steel C45 has been investigated in the absence and presence of different content of NaCl at four different temperatures 293, 303, 313, and 323 K by using potentiodynamic polarization technique. The results shown that the corrosion of carbon steel in the absence of NaCl is lower than in the presence of NaCl, and increased the concentration of NaCl lead to increase the corrosion rate at all the experimental temperatures and the maximum corrosion rate was observed in 14% NaCl. The corrosion rate was decreased after reaching the maximum value and increase the solution concentration of NaCl at 20% and 26% at all the four temperatures and that could be attributed to the high resistance of the solution when the concentration be higher. All the thermodynamic functions and activation energy are calculated and the results of Gibbs Free energy and enthalpy shown that the corrosion of carbon steel C45 in the absence or presence of NaCl at each same temperature is nonspontaneous and endothermic. The obtained results were in a good agreement with previous work based on the using of the weight loss method by another research work).

Thermal and technological aspects of double face grinding of C45 carbon steel

In grinding, the contact zone temperature is a decisive factor influencing the achievable surface quality and the grinding tool wear. In contrast to other grinding processes, only few information regarding double face grinding with planetary kinematics when processing steel is known up to date. Since the successive substitution of industrial double-sided lapping processes by double-sided grinding, it has become necessary to the conducted research in order to provide deeper understanding of the process and factors that influence it. To determine the workpiece temperature during grinding of C45 components, silicon temperature sensors were integrated into the workpiece holders and technological investigations were carried out. The influences and interactions of the mean cutting speed, cooling lubricant flow rate and cutting ability of the grinding wheels on the resulting workpiece temperature were analysed. Subsequently, modelling enabled an empirical estimation of the resulting workpiece temperature for processes in the investigated test area. With regard to the design and optimization of processes for machining plane-parallel workpiece surfaces, this model is a helpful tool for avoiding thermally induced workpiece damage and reduction of tool wear. Furthermore, the method can be used to conduct further examinations on the grinding process and to reduce the amount of cooling lubricant used, to improve life cycle assessment.

Experimental Investigation and Weld Characterization Analysis on Carbon Steel by using Nd:Yag Laser Welding

Laser welding is a compulsion in attaining certain structures and in situations demanding high-temperature resistance in one area and corrosion resistance in another. The objective of this study is to increase the efficiency of the weld joints and to study their properties. This study is aimed at optimizing the fastening method parameters to improve the life and efficiency of C45 carbon steel joint. Laser welding of C45 carbon steel plates is done without any prior heat treatment with a Nd:YAG laser pumped by a flash lamp that produces a pulsed output. Laser welding is carried out by varying parameters like Laser Power, Pulse Width, and Frequency thereby varying the laser penetration power and the bead formation that occurs in the weld area. Optimum laser welding parameters that yield maximum weld strength and minimum heat affect zone are found experimentally. The focal diameter was fixed at 1.8mm and the other three parameters: Power, Pulse Width, and Frequency were varied to evaluate the best combination. Experimental parameters were selected through Taguchi design using the L9 orthogonal array. The welded joints have also been subjected to microstructure test, tensile strength, and hardness to evaluate its metallurgical and mechanical properties.

Experimental investigation on a novel approach for laser surface hardening modelling

Laser surface hardening is rapidly growing in industrial applications due to its high flexibility, accuracy, cleanness and energy efficiency. However, the experimental process optimization can be a tricky task due to the number of involved parameters, thus suggesting for alternative approaches such as reliable numerical simulations. Conventional laser hardening models compute the achieved hardness on the basis of microstructure predictions due to carbon diffusion during the process heat thermal cycle. Nevertheless, this approach is very time consuming and not allows to simulate real complex products during laser treatments. To overcome this limitation, a novel simplified approach for laser surface hardening modelling is presented and discussed. The basic assumption consists in neglecting the austenite homogenization due to the short time and the insufficient carbon diffusion during the heating phase of the process. In the present work, this assumption is experimentally verified through nano-hardness measurements on C45 carbon steel samples both laser and oven treated by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM) technique.