Carbon Production Rates Research Articles

Census-based estimates of Mediterranean Oligocene–Miocene reef carbonate production

Census-based approaches to reefal carbonate budgets are increasingly being used to project the near-future fate of tropical coral reefs. Some of the census parameters are difficult to achieve in fossil reef systems, which may be the reason why no census-based estimates of fossil reef carbonate production have been published until now. Here, we apply a census-based estimate of gross carbonate production in two reef systems from southeastern Italy to (1) test if reasonable estimates are possible and (2) assess the variability of carbonate production rates over time and reef environment. We confirm that estimates of late Oligocene and late Miocene reef gross carbonate production are within the range of modern coral reefs with the late Oligocene reef front showing the greatest carbonate production (6.1 ± 1.3 kg CaCO3 m−2 year−1) and the late Miocene reef front exhibiting the lowest production (1.7 ± 0.5 kg CaCO3 m−2 year−1). The decline of reef carbonate production from the Oligocene to the Miocene is accompanied by a decline of reef builder biodiversity but driven by the lower coral cover and coral growth rates in the Miocene. The decline of reefal carbonate production may be related to late Cenozoic cooling.

Enhancing reef carbonate budgets through coral restoration

Complex reef structure, built via calcium carbonate production by stony corals and other calcifying taxa, supports key ecosystem services. However, the decline in coral cover on reefs of the Florida Reef Tract (US), caused by ocean warming, disease, and other stressors, has led to erosion exceeding accretion, causing net loss of reef framework. Active coral restoration, aimed at rapidly increasing coral cover, is essential for recovering reef structure and function. Traditionally, restoration success focused on the survivorship and growth of transplanted corals. This is the first empirical study to examine the role of high-density outplants of the endangered staghorn coral, Acropora cervicornis, in restoring positive carbonate accretion on Florida reefs. Successful transplantation of staghorn corals contributed to positive net carbonate production. Restored plots yielded a mean net carbonate production rate of 3.06 kg CaCO3 m− 2 yr− 1, whereas control plots exhibited net erosive states. Staghorn restoration plots sustained positive net carbonate production at a threshold of ~ 2.96% coral cover. However, bleaching, storms, and disease challenge these reefs, highlighting the need for restoration strategies that enhance resilience to environmental stressors. Establishing Acroporid aggregations through outplanting, alongside climate adaptation strategies, could foster reef habitat growth and enhance the recovery of ecosystem services.

Distinct responses of diatom- and flagellate-dominated Antarctic phytoplankton communities to altered iron and light supply

Primary production in the Southern Ocean is strongly influenced by the availability of light and iron (Fe). To examine the response of two distinct natural Antarctic phytoplankton communities (diatom vs. flagellates) to increasing light and Fe availability, we conducted two shipboard incubation experiments during late summer and exposed each community to increasing light intensities (30, 80, and 150 µmol photons m−2 s−1) with or without Fe amendment. Our results show clearly that both communities were Fe-limited since Fe addition resulted in higher particulate organic carbon (POC) production rates. The magnitude of the Fe-dependent increase in POC production, however, varied between the two stations being higher in the diatom-dominated community relative to the flagellate-dominated community. This differential response to increasing Fe supply could be attributed to the higher Fe requirement of the flagellate-dominated assemblage relative to the diatom-dominated assemblage. Irrespective of Fe availability, light also strongly stimulated the POC production of both communities between low and medium light supply (30 versus 80 µmol photons m−2 s−1), indicating that both assemblages were light-limited in situ. However, since POC production of both communities did not increase further at the highest light intensity (150 µmol photons m−2 s−1) even under high Fe supply, this suggests that light supply was saturated or that other conditions must be fulfilled (e.g., availability of trace metals other than Fe) in order for the communities to benefit from the higher light and Fe conditions.

Coral carbonate production across depth: homogenisation after bleaching?

Recurrent climate-driven warming events, which can induce severe coral bleaching and mortality on tropical reefs, are predicted to cause homogenisation of coral communities and loss of ecosystem functions in shallow reef systems (< 30 m). However, data documenting the variation in coral carbonate production across depth are limited. Here we explore differences in coral cover, community composition, coral colony size structure and carbonate production rates between two depths (10 m and 17.5 m) across four atolls in the remote Chagos Archipelago. We show higher coral carbonate production rates at 10 m (4.82 ± 0.27 G, where G = kg CaCO3 m−2 yr−1) compared to sites at 17.5 m (3.1 ± 0.18 G). The main carbonate producers at 10 m consisted of fast-growing branching and tabular corals (mainly Acroporids) and massive corals (mainly Porites), with high abundances of medium- and large-sized colonies. In contrast, coral carbonate production at 17.5 m was driven by slow-growing encrusting and foliose morphotypes and small colony sizes. Utilising a dataset following 6–7 years of recovery after the 2015–2017 bleaching event, our results show that depth-homogenisation of coral communities was temporary and carbonate production rates at 10 m depth recovered quicker at 3 of 4 studied atolls. The exception is Great Chagos Bank where slower recovery of branching and tabular corals at 10 m has led to a longer-lasting depth-homogenisation of carbonate production rates. The latter example cautions that more frequent bleaching events may drive increasing homogenisation of carbonate production rates across depth gradients, with implications for vital reef geo-ecological functions.

Glacial melt impacts carbon flows in an Antarctic benthic food web

Most coastal glaciers on the West Antarctic Peninsula are in retreat. Glacial ice scouring and lithogenic particle runoff increase turbidity and shape soft sediment benthic communities. This, in turn, has the potential to induce a shift in these systems from an autotrophic to a heterotrophic state. In this study, we investigated the influence of glacial runoff on carbon flows in the soft-sediment food web of Potter Cove, a well-studied shallow fjord located in the northern region of the West Antarctic Peninsula. We constructed linear inverse food web models using a dataset that includes benthic carbon stocks as well as carbon production and respiration rates. The dataset offers detailed spatial information across three locations and seasonal variations spanning three seasons, reflecting different degrees of disturbance from glacial melt runoff. In these highly resolved food web models, we quantified the carbon flows from various resource compartments (phytoplankton detritus, macroalgae, microphytobenthos, sediment detritus) to consumers (ranging from prokaryotes to various functional groups in meio- and macrofauna). Locations and seasons characterized by high glacial melt runoff exhibited distinct patterns of carbon flow compared to those with low glacial melt runoff. This difference was primarily driven by a less pronounced benthic primary production pathway, an impaired microbial loop and a lower secondary production of the dominant bivalve Aequiyoldia eightsii and other infauna in the location close to the glacier. In contrast, the bivalve Laternula elliptica and meiofauna had the highest secondary production close to the glacier, where they are exposed to high glacial melt runoff. This study shows how the effects of glacial melt propagate from lower to higher trophic levels, thereby affecting the transfer of energy in the ecosystem.

A phosphate-rich marine reservoir in the redox stratified Ediacaran ocean

AbstractPhosphorus (P) is the key nutrient thought to limit primary productivity on geological timescales, and hence P bioavailability exerted a major influence on Earth’s surface oxygenation dynamics through the Precambrian, with ensuing implications for biological evolution. Here, we document highly elevated P contents in non-glacial Ediacaran (635–541 Ma) iron formations from Northwestern China, with P dominantly occurring as carbonate fluorapatite formed during early diagenesis. These analyses, in combination with marine sediment P contents and phosphorite abundance data, point to a state change in oceanic P concentrations during the Ediacaran, which we attribute to enhanced recycling from marine sediments under redox-stratified conditions. Subsequent elevated rates of primary productivity and organic carbon production may have sustained the contemporaneous first appearance of complex deep marine habitats, and would have increased the extent and stability of surface water oxygen concentrations, leading to conditions conducive to the subsequent evolution of more complex animals.

Study on the oxidized gas production characteristics and spontaneous combustion tendency of pre-oxidized water-soaked coal in lean-oxygen environments.

The oxidation characteristics and spontaneous combustion (SC) tendency of raw long-flame coal (RC), water-soaked 200-day coal (S200), pre-oxidized water-soaked coal at 200°C (O200S200), and pre-oxidized soaked coal at 300°C (O300S200) in an oxygen-poor environment were investigated using a programmed warming system. The results show that pre-oxidation water-soaked treatment (PWT) promotes the coal-oxygen complex reaction and increases the rate of coal oxygen consumption (OCR) and the rate of carbon and oxygen compound production. The rate of CO and CO2 production of the water-soaked (WS) coal increased by 0.329mol·(cm3·s)-1 and 0.922mol·(cm3·s)-1, respectively, compared with that of the original coal sample. PWT reduces the activation energy of coal in the low-temperature oxidation stage (the maximum difference can be up to 110.99kJ/mol) and enhances the oxidizing and heat-releasing capacity. There was a synergistic effect between the pre-oxidation (PO) and WS treatment, and the lowest comprehensive determination index of the SC propensity of coal in O200S200 samples was 831.92 which was 4.72 lower than that of RC samples, presenting a more SC tendency. Low oxygen concentration has an inhibitory effect on the oxidation characteristic parameters of coal, and the apparent activation energy of the low-temperature oxidation stage of pre-oxidized water-soaked coal (PWC) increased to 206.418kJ/mol at 3% oxygen concentration. The lower the oxygen concentration of the anoxic environment, the lower the risk of SC of the coal samples. The results of the study can provide theoretical guidance for the identification and prevention of SC disasters in coal seams with shallow burial and close spacing.

Implications of dietary carbon incorporation in fish carbonates for the global carbon cycle

Marine bony fish are important participants in Earth's carbon cycle through their contributions to the biological pump and the marine inorganic carbon cycle. However, uncertainties in the composition and magnitude of fish contributions preclude their integration into fully coupled carbon-climate models. Here, we consider recent upwards revisions to global fish biomass estimates (2.7–9.5×) and provide new stable carbon isotope measurements that show marine fish are prodigious producers of carbonate with unique composition. Assuming the median increase (4.17×) in fish biomass estimates is linearly reflected in fish carbonate (ichthyocarbonate) production rate, marine fish are estimated to produce between 1.43 and 3.99 Pg CaCO3 yr−1, but potentially as much as 9.03 Pg CaCO3 yr−1. Thus, marine fish carbonate production is equivalent to or potentially higher than contributions by coccolithophores or pelagic foraminifera. New stable carbon isotope analyses indicate that a significant proportion of ichthyocarbonate is derived from dietary carbon, rather than seawater dissolved inorganic carbon. Using a statistical mixing model to derive source contributions, we estimate ichthyocarbonate contains up to 81 % dietary carbon, with average compositions of 28–56 %, standing in contrast to contents <10 % in other biogenic carbonate minerals. Results also indicate ichthyocarbonate contains 5.5–40.4 % total organic carbon. When scaled to the median revised global production of ichthyocarbonate, an additional 0.08 to 1.61 Pg C yr−1 can potentially be added to estimates of fish contributions to the biological pump, significantly increasing marine fish contributions to total surface carbon export. Our integration of geochemical and physiological analyses identifies an overlooked link between carbonate production and the biological pump. Since ichthyocarbonate production is anticipated to increase with climate change scenarios, due to ocean warming and acidification, these results emphasize the importance of quantitative understanding of the multifaceted role of marine fish in the global carbon cycle.

A global synthesis of reported urban tree carbon production rates and approaches

Trees are a prominent feature of urban ecosystems. Urban tree productivity is a key component of urban ecosystem energetics and has been identified as a possible pathway for reducing global greenhouse gas concentrations. Recently, extensive research has been directed to evaluating the carbon dynamics of urban trees in cities throughout the world. Here, we synthesize this research, using results from previous studies from 154 cities to identify the distribution of urban tree productivity globally and the basis for generating urban tree productivity estimates. Reported urban tree productivity shows a strong relationship with estimated tree carbon content and exhibits increases with both temperature and precipitation, with land cover differences influencing the degree of climate sensitivity. Compared with a reference productivity estimate, urban trees showed greatly reduced estimated rates of productivity and the magnitude of reduced productivity was inversely correlated with precipitation but was independent of temperature. Reported rates of productivity across all studies suggest climate restrictions that are more important with less intensively managed land covers. Scaling these results globally suggests a limited opportunity for urban trees to contribute to atmospheric carbon dioxide reductions, especially in the absence of major carbon emission reductions. We found that the majority of results are derived from tree inventories from a single period with rates of productivity estimate through quasi-empirical or allometric models. The majority of studies have been conducted in temperate biomes and North America. These results show that existing urban tree assessments have substantial methodological restrictions and regional biases. Future research of urban tree productivity should look toward improved methods and can use this synthesis as a baseline for comparisons and improvement.

Network evolutionary game analysis of green credit: A perspective of carbon emissions trading

AbstractAs an effective measure for the local government to promote reduction of corporate carbon emissions and sustainable development of social economy, the implementation of green finance policies in enterprises and financial institutions has encountered severe strikes from the low returns of low carbon production and low interest rates of green credit business. Under the premise of liberalizing carbon emissions trading, a triple‐level network evolutionary game consisting of a local government, banks, and enterprises is constructed to analyze response behavior and strategy selection mechanism to green credit. The impacts of management tools are investigated in terms of setting carbon market price, limiting the financing upper bound of misbehaving enterprises, limiting the emissions quota of enterprises for fraudulent green credit, and rewarding clean project development on the decisions of individuals in the network. Results show the following: First, increasing the trading price of carbon emissions has a catalytic effect on enhancing the activeness of banks and enterprises to follow green finance policies, but the autonomous regulation ability of which is limited. Second, reducing the funding ceiling for emitting emissions illegally ambiguates enterprises' preferences for production strategies and discourages them from undertaking low‐carbon projects. Third, excessive restrictions on the share of emissions may evoke regulatory inaction by the local government, consequently leading to instability in the evolution network. Fourth, granting reward for clean production is instrumental for the network to promote green finance policies, but exorbitant subsidies increase the fiscal burden of the local government with no significant effect on the node selection of environment‐friendly strategies.

Biological carbon pump estimate based on multidecadal hydrographic data

The transfer of photosynthetically produced organic carbon from surface to mesopelagic waters draws carbon dioxide from the atmosphere1. However, current observation-based estimates disagree on the strength of this biological carbon pump (BCP)2. Earth system models (ESMs) also exhibit a large spread of BCP estimates, indicating limited representations of the known carbon export pathways3. Here we use several decades of hydrographic observations to produce a top-down estimate of the strength of the BCP with an inverse biogeochemical model that implicitly accounts for all known export pathways. Our estimate of total organic carbon (TOC) export at 73.4 m (model euphotic zone depth) is 15.00 ± 1.12 Pg C year−1, with only two-thirds reaching 100 m depth owing to rapid remineralization of organic matter in the upper water column. Partitioned by sequestration time below the euphotic zone, τ, the globally integrated organic carbon production rate with τ > 3 months is 11.09 ± 1.02 Pg C year−1, dropping to 8.25 ± 0.30 Pg C year−1 for τ > 1 year, with 81% contributed by the non-advective-diffusive vertical flux owing to sinking particles and vertically migrating zooplankton. Nevertheless, export of organic carbon by mixing and other fluid transport of dissolved matter and suspended particles remains regionally important for meeting the respiratory carbon demand. Furthermore, the temperature dependence of the sequestration efficiency inferred from our inversion suggests that future global warming may intensify the recycling of organic matter in the upper ocean, potentially weakening the BCP.

Investigating the controls on architecture and facies distribution of a carbonate ramp to shelf system: Insights from stratigraphic forward modeling of the Jurassic Smackover Formation, Gulf of Mexico

To develop a better understanding of the controls on the stratigraphic architecture of carbonate systems, it is necessary to quantify the impact of the physical and chemical variables responsible. The growth, distribution, and nature of carbonate factories are dependent on various space and time-dependent variables, such as paleotopography, accommodation, sediment supply, energy and slope of the system, and water chemistry.The Upper Jurassic Smackover Formation is a heterogeneous hydrocarbon source rock and reservoir in the semi-restricted Conecuh Embayment of southwestern Alabama. It consists of a lower transgressive unit composed of microbialite and mudstone/wackestone, and an upper regressive mixed carbonate-siliciclastic unit composed of oolitic packstone-grainstone, microbialite, bioturbated to laminated carbonate mudstone, and shale. The physiographic setting of the Conecuh Embayment, along with the variability in the carbonate factory types, eustatic sea level fluctuations, and sea-water circulation presents an exceptional site for evaluating the controls on carbonate platform/shelf margin to slope architecture.Stratigraphic forward modeling using DionisosFlow, calibrated with a geologic cross-section built from well log and core data, was carried out to test the impact of antecedent topography, accommodation, and carbonate factory type on the facies distribution and architecture of the carbonate shelf. Results of our study indicate that geometries in the transgressive Smackover shelf are controlled by accommodation and rate of carbonate production, while limited accommodation controlled the stratigraphic architecture of the regressive system.

Determination of the limiting step in the biomineralization of calcium carbonate by Bacillus cereus

Cement is the most widely used material in the world. However, a lack of maintenance of concrete structures increases the collapse danger. Against this situation, studies to recover structures are developed using biomineralizing bacteria. The aim of this study was to determine the limiting step in a prototype Cascade System for Biomineralization in Cement (CSBC) comparing crystallization to biochemical reaction by Bacillus cereus. The similar conditions of crystallization and bioreaction indicated that crystallization is the limiting step, with a carbonate production rate of 0.19 mg/h. The results obtained indicated an eco-friendly option to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Decreased calcification to photosynthesis ratio in coccolithophores under reduced O2 and elevated CO2 environment

We examined the physiological performance in the most cosmopolitan coccolithophorid, Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica, which were treated with 8.3 (ambient O2 (AO)), 4.6 (medium O2 (MO)), and 2.5 (low O2 (LO)) mg L–1 O2 under 400 ppm (ambient CO2 (AC)) and 1000 (high CO2 (HC)) ppm CO2 conditions. Elevated CO2 decreased the specific growth rate of cells cultured under AO and LO conditions in both species, but it increased the rate in the MO-grown E. huxleyi. Regardless of the CO2 levels, diminished O2 concentration inhibited the growth rate in E. huxleyi while accelerating the rate in G. oceanica. LO reduced the particulate organic carbon (POC) production rate compared to the AO treatment in both species. Additionally, the decrease was higher in the HC cultures than in the AC ones. LO also inhibited the production rate of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) compared to the AO/AC treatment. Due to a higher reduction in the production rate of PIC than POC, the PIC/POC ratio was decreased in the LO treatment compared to the AO/AC treatment. The current study reveals that low O2 can, individually or in combination with high CO2, considerably affect the physiology of marine photoautotrophic organisms.

Performance evaluation on CO2 fixation with chlorine gas production based on direct electrolysis of seawater

CO2 fixation from seawater is an effective way to mitigate climate change and has gained widespread attention in recent years. However, the existing research mostly involves stoichiometric bases and bipolar membrane electrodialysis methods, and the performance of direct seawater electrolysis for CO2 fixation is presented with limited studies and rare research data. The performance evaluation on CO2 fixation based on the technology of direct seawater electrolysis is presented in this paper. Energy consumption, decalcification rate, and calcium carbonate production rate are employed as performance indexes to assess the feasibility of CO2 fixation through direct electrolysis of seawater. The simulation method is adopted in this paper, with validation based on data from experiment. As a result, the minimum energy consumption for per amount of calcium carbonate deposited ranges from 557.82 to 730.06 kJ/mol CaCO3 at the seawater flow rate range of 0.01–0.1 L/s, which has an advantage over other electrochemical CO2 capture method. Additionally, the decalcification rate and calcium carbonate production rate can reach a maximum of 100% and 0.36 mmol/s respectively. The conclusions presented in this paper can serve as a valuable guide for conducting large-scale evaluations or application analyses.

The physiological response of an Antarctic key phytoplankton species to low iron and manganese concentrations

AbstractIron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) availability and the divergent requirements of phytoplankton species were recently shown to be potential important drivers of Southern Ocean community composition. Knowledge about Antarctic phytoplankton species requirements for Fe and Mn remains, however, scarce. By performing laboratory experiments and additional calculations of the photosynthetic electron transport, we investigated the response of the ecologically important species Phaeocystis antarctica under a combination of different Fe and Mn concentrations. Fe deprivation alone provoked typical physiological characteristics of Fe limitation in P. antarctica (e.g., lowered growth and photosynthetic efficiency). In comparison, under Mn deprivation alone, the growth and carbon production of P. antarctica were not impacted. Its tolerance to cope with low Mn concentrations resulted from an efficient photoacclimation strategy, including a higher number of active photosystems II through which fewer electrons were transported. This strategy allowed us to maintain similar high growth and carbon production rates as FeMn‐enriched cells. Due to its low Mn requirement, P. antarctica performed physiologically as Fe‐deprived cells under the combined depletion of Fe and Mn. Hence, our study reveals that different from other Southern Ocean phytoplankton species, P. antarctica possesses a high capacity to cope with natural low Mn concentrations, which can facilitate its dominance over others, potentially explaining its ecological success across the Southern Ocean.

Steerable artificial magnetic bacteria with target delivery ability of calcium carbonate for soil improvement.

The microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) has acquired significant attention due to its immense potential in sustainable engineering applications, particularly in soil improvement. However, the precise control of microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation remains a formidable challenge in engineering practices, owing to the uncertain movement paths of bacteria and the nonuniform distribution of soil pores. Taking inspiration from targeted therapy in medicine, this paper presents novel research on the development and validation of magnetically responsive bacteria. These bacteria demonstrate the ability to target calcium carbonate precipitation in a microfluidic chip, thereby promoting an environmentally friendly and ecologically sustainable biomineralization paradigm. The study focuses on investigating the migration of magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) in aqueous solutions and enhancing the stability of MNP culture liquids. A specially designed microfluidic chip is utilized to simulate natural sand particles and their pores, while an external magnetic field is applied to precisely control the movement path of the artificial magnetic bacteria, enabling targeted precipitation of calcium carbonate at the micron-scale. Verification of the engineered artificial magnetic bacteria and their ability to induce calcium carbonate precipitation is conducted through SEM-EDS analysis, microfluidic chip observations, and the application of the K-means algorithm and ImageJ software to analyze calcium carbonate formation. The influence of the concentration of magnetic nanoparticles on the calcium carbonate production rate was also studied. The results confirm the potential of the artificial magnetic bacteria for future engineering applications. KEY POINTS: • Sporosarcina pasteurii is first time successfully engineered into artificial magnetic bacteria. • The artificial magnetic bacteria show excellent performance of targeted transportation and directional deposition of CaCO3 in microfluidic chip. • The emergence of artificial magnetic bacteria promotes paradigm shift of next generation environmentally friendly biomineralization.

Carbonate factories and their critical control on the geometry of carbonate platforms (mid-Cretaceous, southern Iran)

Tropical rimmed platforms represent a much more efficient protection from coastal erosion than carbonate ramps. Understanding the controlling factors of platform geometry is therefore crucial to predict the fate of rimmed platforms under global-warming conditions. Here, we present detailed biostratigraphic, sedimentological, geochemical, and high-resolution carbon-isotope analyses of mid-Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) carbonate rocks well exposed in the Khormoj section located in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran. Sixteen microfacies were identified, allowing us to define the superposition of different platform geometries, a carbonate ramp in the Albian and a rimmed platform in the Cenomanian. Biostratigraphic and carbon-isotope analyses allowed us to identify the OAE1b, OAE1d, and Middle Cenomanian events in the Khormoj section. The paleodepth changes documented by carbonate microfacies testify to two transgressive events that can be correlated with long-term eustatic curves during the ramp stage. The Albian ramp was formed by orbitolinids under high siliciclastic input whereas the Cenomanian rimmed platform was built by rudists during clear water conditions. These two carbonate factories have drastic different carbonate sedimentation modes. The orbitolinid factory is characterized by a low carbonate production rate and fine carbonate grains resulting in ramp geometry, whereas the rudist factory is characterized by a high carbonate production rate and coarse carbonate grains leading to a rimmed platform geometry.

Field implementation of enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation technology for reinforcing a bedding layer beneath an underground cable duct

A suitable bearing capacity of foundation is critical for the safety of civil structures. Sometimes foundation reinforcement is necessary and an effective and environmentally friendly method would be the preferred choice. In this study, the potential application of enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) was investigated for reinforcing a 0.6 m bedding layer on top of clay to improve the bearing capacity of the foundation underneath an underground cable duct. Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the optimal operational parameters for the extraction of crude urease liquid and optimal grain size range of sea sands to be used to construct the bedding layer. Field tests were planned based on orthogonal experimental design to study the factors that would significantly affect the bio-cementation effect on site. The dynamic deformation modulus, calcium carbonate content and long-term ground stress variations were used to evaluate the bio-cementation effect and the long-term performance of the EICP-treated bedding layer. The laboratory test results showed that the optimal duration for the extraction of crude urease liquid is 1 h and the optimal usage of soybean husk powder in urease extraction solution is 100 g/L. The calcium carbonate production rate decreases significantly when the concentration of cementation solution exceeds 0.5 mol/L. The results of site trial showed that the number of EICP treatments has the most significant impact on the effectiveness of EICP treatment and the highest dynamic deformation modulus ( E vd ) of EICP-treated bedding layer reached 50.55 MPa. The area with better bio-cementation effect was found to take higher ground stress which validates that the EICP treatment could improve the bearing capacity of foundation by reinforcing the bedding layer. The field trial described and the analysis introduced in this paper can provide a practical basis for applying EICP technology to the reinforcement of bedding layer in poor ground conditions.

INTERACTION OF CO2 AND LIGHT AVAILABILITY ON PHOTOPHYSIOLOGY OF TROPICAL COCCOLITOPHORIDS (EMILIANIA HUXLEYI, GEPHYROCAPSA OCEANICA, AND OCHOSPHAERA SP.)

The study to examine the calcification rate, adaptation, and the biotic response of three tropical coccolithophorids (Emiliania huxleyi, Gephyrocapsa oceanica, and Ochosphaera sp) to changes in CO2 concentration. Three selected calcifying coccolitophorids were grown at batch culture with CO2 system at two levels of CO2 (385 and 1000 ppm) and two light dark periods. The parameters measured and calculation including growth rate, particulate organic carbon content, particulate inorganic carbon content, chlorophyll a, cell size, photosynthetic, organic, inorganic carbon production, photosynthesis, and calcification rate. The results showed that there was a different response to carbonate chemistry changes and dark and light periods in any of the analyzed parameters. The growth rate of three selected calcifying microalgae tested was decreasing significantly at high concentrations of CO2 (1000 ppm) treatment on 14:10 hour light: dark periods. However, there was no significant difference between the two CO2 concentrations where they were illuminated by 24 hours light in growth rate. The increasing CO2 concentration and light-dark periods were species-specific responses to photosynthesis and calcification rate for three selected calcifying microalgae.