Carbon Fillers Research Articles

The effect of graphene properties on the extrusion of a shape memory epoxy vitrimer

Thermoset polymers exhibit very appealing mechanical and functional properties. Direct ink writing (DIW) could open new possibilities in the design and fabrication of intricate thermoset parts, but it often requires the use of additives such as fumed silica or nanoclays to modify the rheology of uncured epoxies. However, relatively large concentrations are usually needed what can be detrimental to properties. Graphene-derived additives are an appealing alternative, but we need to understand the key physicochemical characteristics that define an optimum graphene rheology modifier. Here we compare the effect of three different carbon fillers on the viscoelastic response of a reprocessable epoxy vitrimer with shape memory capabilities, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene powder (GP), and assess the effect of their chemistry and morphology. The analysis shows that large (∼20 μm in size) rGO flakes enable the formation of strong, printable gels, through Van der Waals interactions and physical entanglement. The vitrimer could be successfully printed by incorporating 5 wt% of rGO. The printed parts exhibit tensile strengths (30–60 MPa), moduli (2–3 GPa), strength recovery after reprocessing (∼80 %), shape-memory properties comparable to the pure epoxy, and improved water resistance due to the introduction of hydrophobic rGO.

Prediction of mechanical properties of polymer composites with carbon fillers based on low-frequency electrical conductivity data

Prediction of mechanical properties of polymer composites with carbon fillers based on low-frequency electrical conductivity data

Rebound characteristics of flexible and stiff jute rubber/epoxy hybrid composite under low-velocity impact

This present work aims to assess the low-velocity impact response of novel configuration based on jute/rubber/epoxy flexible and stiff composites having varying layup sequences using an experimental study. The Charpy and drop weight impact tests are done according to the standards. Drop weight low-velocity impact test at an energy level of 15J was performed using a conical shape impactor. Carboxylated Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (XNBR) containing carbon fillers ( N330 and N550) consisting 35 phr concentration each is used in the stacking sequence of the composite due to its high toughness and energy dissipation property. During drop weight tests conducted at a 15J energy level, the flexible RJRJR composite exhibited a peak force of 486 N, whereas the stiffer RJEJR composite demonstrated a peak force of 1075 N. The flexible composite shows no damage for the energy level tested. However, the stiff composite made using epoxy in between jute layers fails due to the matrix cracking in the composite. The peak force and specific energy absorption is dependent on stacking configuration and increases with the addition of rubber interface in the stiff composite. The energy absorption of stiff composite is higher as compared to flexible composite as indicated by the peak force.

Characterization of fluoroelastomers compounds by ATR-FTIR

Fluoroelastomers (FKM) are used to manufacture seals and other rubber devices that can withstand harsh operating conditions, including aggressive media and extreme low and high temperatures. Even though nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and chromatographic techniques have been extensively used in the characterization of raw FKM molecules, the identification of cured compounds entails a characterization method that is able to overcome the complexity related to this kind of structure. In this sense, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy can outperform other characterization techniques because it does not require solubilization or any special preparation of the sample. In this study, 10 FKM compounds were produced in this study utilizing four commercial types of FKM and the fillers carbon black, barium sulfate, and iron oxide. All unfilled-FKM (as received) and their compounds were analyzed by ATR-FTIR with germanium crystal. Between 15 and 25 analyses were performed for all each FKM type sample and their respective compounds. All spectra were analyzed, and the bands were assigned. Findings regarding the interference of the fillers in the spectra were also reported. From relationships between the height of the spectral zones and the bands at 1397 and 1428 cm−1, it was possible to distinguish all sample compositions of FKM types 1, 2, 3, and 5. This study demonstrates that ATR-FTIR has the potential to be utilized as a technique to detect the type of FKM compounds, an important rubber used in harsh industrial applications. Replacing carbon with BaSO4 reduces the tensile at 50% strain of FKM types 1 and 2 composites. FKM types 3 and 5 composites filled with 30 phr of carbon black have a higher tensile at 50% strain than those of FKM type 1.

Development of Test Methods in the Process of Electrically Conductive Concrete Production

Abstract Prevention of climate change, implementation of sustainable development principles in building industry, creation of Green buildings, Three-zero buildings (zero energy, zero emissions, zero waste), energy independent buildings maybe on the base of Smart Concrete. Electrically Conductive Concrete as type of Smart Concrete have the possibilities to create multifunctional hybrid structures for various purposes. The production of electrically conductive concrete is usually based on the introduction of carbon materials and carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) as electrically conductive fillers into its concrete composition. The theory of conductive percolation is used for design of electrically conductive concrete. To select electrically conductive carbon filler, it is necessary to summarize their electrically conductive characteristics. Today, there is no standard for determining the electrical conductivity of carbon fillers, nor is there a method for designing the composition of electrically conductive concrete; the development of both is imperative. Features of the preparation of electrically conductive concrete with hydrophobic carbon nanoparticles prone to aggregation are indicated. To obtain high quality electrically conductive products an operating system for quality control at the stages of the technological process of manufacturing must be proposed. Homogenization of the electrically conductive filler is very important. It is necessary to propose a method for assessing the stability of an aqueous suspension of a hydrophobic carbon material used for homogeneous distribution of a filler. Due to the lack of a standard, a method for determining the electrical conductivity of concrete is also needed.

Enhancing Rural Surface Water Remediation with Iron–Carbon Microelectrolysis-Strengthened Ecological Floating Beds

Ecological floating beds, with their compact footprint and mobility, offer a promising solution for sustainable surface water remediation in rural areas. However, low removal efficiency and instability still limit its application. In this study, iron–carbon-based fillers were integrated into ecological floating beds to investigate their impact and mechanisms in removing pollutants, including carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metals. Results indicate that all five fillers (activated carbon, iron–carbon fillers, sponge iron, activated carbon + iron–carbon fillers, and activated carbon + sponge iron) can completely remove orthophosphate, and the sponge iron filler system can completely remove nitrate. Then, fillers were applied to ecological floating beds, and the iron–carbon microelectrolysis (activated carbon + sponge iron filler)-enhanced ecological floating bed showed superior removal efficiency for pollutants. It achieved 95% removal of NH4+-N, 85% removal of NO3−-N, 75% removal of total phosphorus, 90% removal of chemical oxygen demand, and 90% removal of heavy metals. Typical nitrifying bacteria Nitrospira, denitrifying bacteria Denitratisoma, and a variety of bacterial genera with denitrification functions (e.g., Rhodobacter, Dechloromonas, Sediminibacterium, and Novosphingobium) coexisted in the system, ensuring efficient and robust nitrogen removal performance. These findings will provide support for the sustainable treatment of surface water in rural areas.

From waste to resource: Transforming Kraft black liquor into sustainable porous carbon fillers for radome applications

The study addresses environmental and commercial challenges posed by weak black liquor (WBL) generated through the Kraft process in the paper industry. WBL, a toxic waste, annually reaches a staggering 1.3 billion tonnes globally. Currently, it is either incinerated for energy production or subjected to costly and complex chemical treatments to extract valuable compounds. Despite efforts to develop a scalable value-added material, the existing methods are inefficient in fully reusing WBL. Here, we report a simple chemical synthesis process that reuses 100 % of WBL without generating any waste materials; even salts recovered during the process might be reintegrated into the industry as chemical byproducts. Furthermore, given the simplicity and efficiency of the proposed synthesis methodology to transform WBL into a novel and sustainable porous carbon material, the carbon Kraft (CK). The process can also be scaled by using the right synthesis proportions and within a circular economy. CK exhibited desirable characteristics with a renewable content of 65 wt%, including a turbostratic graphitic-like structure (48.8 % graphitized), carbon content of 85 wt%, large specific surface area of 234.0 m2∙g−1, nanoporosity of 0.13 cm3∙g−1, and density of 1.92 g∙(cm3)-1. Moreover, CK showed electrical and thermal insulating characteristics, essential for use as fillers for elastomeric composite in electromagnetic transparent radome structures used to protect antennas and radars of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) from harsh environmental effects. Radomes were designed through the electromagnetic impedance match theory of half-wavelength calculations over specific frequencies of 1.3, 10, 15, 20, and 30 GHz. Results showed excellent transmission loss between −0.41 and −1.48 dB, representing 90.8 % and 70.5 % of transmittance, respectively.

Enhancement of electrical conductivity and band gap of epoxy/MWCNT/GNP/glass fibers hybrid materials

Polymer composites containing carbon nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention because of their special functional characteristics. Characterization of optical and dielectric characteristics was done. To comprehend the impact of nanofillers, dielectric characteristics, UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, and Fourier transform spectroscopy were employed. The role of carbon fillers on metrics, such as band gap energy, absorption coefficient, and dielectric characteristics of nanocomposites was examined to differentiate between the effects of nanofillers. The AC conductivity is explained following the classical percolation theory. The percolation threshold is discovered to be 1 wt.% of a hybrid system of nanofillers consisting of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The presence of carbon nanofillers significantly enhances the electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites. The optical band gap energy of nanocomposites was obtained from the Tauc method. The study establishes the relationship between band gap energy and AC conductivity using Tauc’s relation and Jonscher’s power law. The results show that the band gap energy of composites decreases with the addition of hybrid nanofillers, with values observed at 2.65 eV and 2.95 eV, while without fillers of 3.1 eV and 3.05 eV attributed to increased localized states within the bandgap. Composites with nanofillers show an AC conductivity of 1.86 S/m at 1 wt% of nanofillers, compared to 1.52 × 10−6 S/m and 1.09 × 10−6 S/m for composites without nanofillers. The UV–Vis spectra reveal a significant blue shift in the absorption peak when the weight percentage of carbon nanoparticles is increased. The findings of this study point toward the possibilities of the development of novel nanocomposites with enhanced performance for electronics and energy storage.

Intrinsically Conductive and Cu-Functionalized Polymer-Composite Membranes as Gas Diffusion Electrodes for CO2 Electroreduction.

We introduced a new class of gas diffusion electrodes (GDEs) with adjustable pore morphology. We fabricated intrinsically conductive polymer-composite membranes containing carbon filler, enabling a pore structure variation through film casting cum phase separation protocols. We further selectively functionalized specific pore regions of the membranes with Cu by a NaBH4-facilitated coating strategy. The as-obtained GDEs can facilitate the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) at Cu active sites that are presented inside a defined and electrically conductive pore system. When employing them as free-standing cathodes in a CO2 flow electrolyzer, we achieved >70% Faradaic efficiencies for CO2RR products at up to 200 mA/cm2. We further demonstrated that deposition of a dense Cu layer on top of the membrane leads to obstruction of the underlying pore openings, inhibiting an excessive wetting of the pore pathways that transport gaseous CO2. However, the presentation of Cu inside the pore system of our novel membrane electrodes increased the C2H4/CO selectivity by a factor of up to 3 compared to Cu presented in the dense layer on top of the membrane. Additionally, we found that gaseous CO2 could still access Cu in macropores after wetting with electrolyte, while CO2RR was completely suppressed in wetted nm-scale pores.

Electrophysical Characteristics of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Composites Filled with Magnetite and Carbon Fiber Fillers.

With the rapid development of wireless communication technologies and the miniaturization trend in the electronics industry, the reduction of electromagnetic interference has become an important issue. To solve this problem, a lot of attention has been focused on polymer composites with combined functional fillers. In this paper, we report a method for creating an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic composite with a low amount of conductive carbon and magnetic fillers preparation. Also, we investigate the mechanical, thermophysical, and electrodynamic characteristics of the resulting composites. Increasing the combined filler amount in the ABS composite from 1 to 5 wt % leads to a composite conductivity growth of almost 50 times. It is necessary to underline the temperature decrease of 5 wt % mass loss and, accordingly, the composite heat resistance reduction with an increase in the combined filler from 1 to 5 wt %, while the thermal conductivity remains almost constant. It was established that electrodynamic and physical-mechanical characteristics depend on the agglomeration of fillers. This work is expected to reveal the potential of combining commercially available fillers to construct effective materials with good electromagnetic interference (EMI) protection using mass production methods (extrusion and injection molding).

A novel three-dimensional biofilm-electrode/anoxic-oxic process for nitrogen and phosphorus removal: Performance, mechanism and microbial community

Traditional anoxic-oxic (AO) process cannot meet increasingly high pollutants emission standards in China. In order to improve removal efficiencies of the pollutants and the electron transfer rate, graphite-graphite electrodes and iron carbon fillers were added into AO reactor to form three-dimensional biofilm electrode/anoxic aerobic reactor (3DBER/AO). Removal efficiencies of the pollutants, sludge properties and microbial community structure were investigated under different current intensities. The results showed that microbial activity and removal efficiencies of the pollutants were the maximum, and mass percentage of Fe reached the highest value of 5.11 % under the current of 40 mA. Excessive or insufficient current intensity could lead to a decrease in sludge activity and removal efficiencies of the pollutants. The removal of nitrogen mainly depended on the nitrification and denitrification of microorganisms, and dissolved phosphorus was removed through chemical precipitation. Current intensity affected microbial communities and biosynthesis. AKYH767 and Saccharmonadales were dominant microorganisms in the cathode and anode sludge, respectively, under the current of 40 mA. However, Azospira and Dechlorobacter were dominant microorganisms in the cathode sludge, and Hydrogenophaga was dominant microorganisms in the anode sludge under the current of 60 mA. These microorganisms were closely related to the removal of organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus. Therefore, microbial community structure and removal efficiencies of the pollutants could be regulated by controlling the current intensity in the 3DBER/AO process.

Advancing sustainable shape memory polymers through 4D printing of polylactic acid-polybutylene adipate terephthalate blends

One of the major challenges in 4D printed Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) is their slow response to thermal stimuli. Synthetic carbon fillers have been introduced to address this issue; however, their use comes with environmental concerns. On the other hand, Polylactic Acid (PLA) is commonly used for 3D/4D printing of SMPs, but it requires softening to achieve large deformations. This research paper introduces a sustainable solution through blending PLA with Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT) that not only addresses these challenges but also possesses environmental eco-friendliness due to PBAT’s high biodegradability rate. PBAT with weight percentages of 15 %, 30 %, and 45 % is utilized to soften PLA, and their composites are successfully 4D printed. Mechanical properties, shape memory effects, morphology, and thermal behaviors are comprehensively investigated. The results show that blending PLA with 45 % PBAT weight results in excellent features such as 220 % elongation and 93 % shape recovery in just a few seconds. The other two PLA-PBAT blends achieve complete shape recovery in less than 8 s. The PLA-PBAT contains 15 % PBAT, in addition to high strength (40 MPa), has 17 % elongation. This, coupled with the low melting temperature of PBAT, drives the high shape recovery rate. Scanning electron microscopy images finally confirm the high printability of all three blends, with the PLA-PBAT composite containing 30 % PBAT exhibiting the best quality in layer interfaces and the least porosity.

Carbon Fiber-Based Vitrimer Composites: A Path toward Current Research That Is High-Performing, Useful, and Sustainable.

In the polymeric material industry, thermosets and related composites have played a substantial role in the production of rubber and plastics. One important subset of these is thermoset composites with carbon reinforcement. The incorporation of carbon fillers and fibers gives polymeric materials improved electrical and mechanical properties, among other benefits. However, the covalently crosslinked network of thermosets presents significant challenges for recycling and reprocessing because of its intractable nature. The introduction of vitrimer materials opens a new avenue to produce biodegradable and recyclable thermosets. Carbon-reinforced vitrimer composites are pursued for high-performance, long-lasting materials with attractive physical properties, the ability to be recycled and processed, and other features that respond uniquely to stimuli. The development of carbon-reinforced vitrimer composites over the last few years is summarized in this article. First, an overview of vitrimers and the methods used to prepare carbon fiber-reinforced vitrimer composites is provided. Because of the vitrimer nature of such composites, reprocessing, healing, and recycling are viable ways to greatly extend their service life; these approaches are thoroughly explained and summarized. The conclusion is our prediction for developing carbon-based vitrimer composites.

Carbon-Enhanced Hydrated Salt Phase Change Materials for Thermal Management Applications.

Inorganic hydrated salt phase change materials (PCMs) hold promise for improving the energy conversion efficiency of thermal systems and facilitating the exploration of renewable thermal energy. Hydrated salts, however, often suffer from low thermal conductivity, supercooling, phase separation, leakage and poor solar absorptance. In recent years, compounding hydrated salts with functional carbon materials has emerged as a promising way to overcome these shortcomings and meet the application demands. This work reviews the recent progress in preparing carbon-enhanced hydrated salt phase change composites for thermal management applications. The intrinsic properties of hydrated salts and their shortcomings are firstly introduced. Then, the advantages of various carbon materials and general approaches for preparing carbon-enhanced hydrated salt PCM composites are briefly described. By introducing representative PCM composites loaded with carbon nanotubes, carbon fibers, graphene oxide, graphene, expanded graphite, biochar, activated carbon and multifunctional carbon, the ways that one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and hybrid carbon materials enhance the comprehensive thermophysical properties of hydrated salts and affect their phase change behavior is systematically discussed. Through analyzing the enhancement effects of different carbon fillers, the rationale for achieving the optimal performance of the PCM composites, including both thermal conductivity and phase change stability, is summarized. Regarding the applications of carbon-enhanced hydrate salt composites, their use for the thermal management of electronic devices, buildings and the human body is highlighted. Finally, research challenges for further improving the overall thermophysical properties of carbon-enhanced hydrated salt PCMs and pushing towards practical applications and potential research directions are discussed. It is expected that this timely review could provide valuable guidelines for the further development of carbon-enhanced hydrated salt composites and stimulate concerted research efforts from diverse communities to promote the widespread applications of high-performance PCM composites.

Investigation on piezoresistivity of self-sensing cementitious composites containing nano carbon fillers under water content variations

Self-sensing cementitious composites containing nano carbon fillers have extensive application prospects in structural health monitoring (SHM) due to their excellent intrinsic piezoresistivity, good mechanical performances, high compatibility and durability. However, the piezoresistivity is prone to be affected by environmental factors, such as water content. Therefore, it is urgent to study the influence of water content on piezoresistivity to avoid unwanted effect. In the present study, piezoresistivity of self-sensing cementitious composites containing nano carbon fillers under cyclic compression with different water contents is investigated. Moreover, mechanisms are also explored comprehensively. The results indicate that the sensitivity, repeatability and stability of the piezoresistivity deteriorate with decreasing of water content. The maximum FCR and stress/strain sensitivity are decreased from 14.3 % to 4.5 % and 0.72 %·MPa−1/124–0.23 %·MPa−1/39, respectively, when water content decreases from 3.53 % to nearly 0 %. Variation of electrical conductivity pathways and networks caused by enclosed water film on surface of electrical conductive fillers take responsible for the changeable of piezoresistivity with different water content. The outcomes offered validity of self-sensing cementitious composites implementation in SHM withstand variation of water content.

Structure‐function integrated ZrO2–SiO2 nanocrystalline glass–ceramics achieved by in situ formation of amorphous carbon

AbstractCeramics can be traditionally classified as structural and functional ones. However, the miniaturization and multi‐functionalization of various devices require ceramics to have both structural and functional properties. In this work, we aimed to develop structure‐function integrated ZrO2–SiO2 nanocrystalline glass–ceramics (NCGCs) by in situ formation of homogenously distributed amorphous carbon. By reducing the calcination temperature of carbon‐containing powder, organic carbon groups were partially retained in the powder and they transformed to amorphous carbon in the sintered NCGCs. At micrometer scale, the carbon was homogenously distributed in the NCGCs, avoiding the commonly encountered agglomeration problem of carbon fillers. The effects of carbon on the microstructure, mechanical properties, wear resistance, and dielectric properties of the NCGCs were investigated. Results showed that the in situ formed amorphous carbon was homogenously distributed in the ZrO2 nanocrystallites. Meanwhile, the amorphous carbon strongly bonded with the ZrO2–SiO2 NCGCs. Only a small amount of carbon was combusted even after annealing at 1000°C for 3 h. The formation of amorphous carbon led to an improvement of nanohardness and wear resistance of the NCGCs, while slightly reducing Young's modulus and flexural strength. The electromagnetic wave transmission performances were improved due to the formation of amorphous carbon. The current study paves a new way for developing structure‐function integrated glass–ceramics through in situ formation of carbon. The prepared structure‐function integrated ZrO2–SiO2 NCGCs have great potential to be used as radome and antenna windows of aerospace aircrafts that work in harsh environment.

Statistical analysis to examine the influence of thermal aging on hybrid glass epoxy polymer composites with fillers of multi‐walled carbon nanotubes

AbstractE‐glass fibers are widely preferred due to ease of processing and its low cost, which has substantial scope in the fields of electronics and electrical insulation applications. Because of its low strength and corrosion resistance, use of E‐glass fibers is limited in aerospace and automotive applications. There is a need for enhancing the properties of the composite to overcome such limitations. Therefore, an attempt is made to introduce multi‐walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) as fillers into E‐glass fibers to meet the industry needs. In the current study, woven glass fiber of 5 layers and multi‐walled nano carbon fillers of 2, 4 and 6 by wt%, LY556 epoxy resin, and HY951 hardener were used to prepare 4 different type of composites along with the neat epoxy glass fiber reinforced polymer composites (GFRP). The hand‐layup route was used in the composite preparation due to its low cost, technological feasibility, and simple process setup. The developed samples were characterized for mechanical properties via tensile, flexural and impact tests. Tribological characteristics were performed by air jet erosion test. Chauvenet's criterion is applied for identifying the outliers (if any) from the data of repeated test properties. Taguchi's (orthogonal array) is selected for obtaining optimal hybrid composite, which yield better mechanical properties. Empirical relations are developed for the material properties in terms of process variables. The sample (4 wt% MWCNT) exhibited enhancement of 17.27% in tensile strength, 6% of impact strength and 7.3% of flexural strength when compared with neat epoxy GFRP. This hybrid composite is considered for thermal aging and observed at 60°C, 8% increase in tensile, 7% increase of impact and 15% in flexural strength due to the precipitation on carbon nano tubes along the gain boundaries. The present study recommends 4% MWCNT fillers in developing hybrid glass epoxy polymer composites for use in aerospace, automotive and civil construction industries due to economic and technological feasibility.Highlights Utilize low‐cost E‐glass fibers in electronics and electrical insulation applications. Improve composite properties for aerospace and automotive industries. Develop hybrid glass epoxy composites with 2 to 6 wt% MWCNT fillers. Examine wear characteristics under air jet erosion and study the impact of thermal aging on mechanical properties. Apply Chauvenet's criterion for outlier identification in measured properties datasets.

Polyurethane-based thin-film composites with carbon micro- to nanoscale fillers and their microwave properties

Polyurethane-based thin-film composites (PUR-based TFCs) with different carbon fillers, namely, carbon flocs formed by carbon dots (CDs) containing O, N, and F heteroatoms and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), were prepared by hot pressing. The morphology and composition of the carbon fillers were investigated by SEM/EDX. Temperature-programmed desorption mass spectrometry and thermogravimetric analysis revealed that the CNTs have the highest thermostability among the fillers. Microwave studies in the X-band showed that the PUR-based TFCs with the CNTs were characterized by higher reflection losses and lower transmission losses than the PUR-based TFCs with the flocs formed by the studied CDs.

Organic-inorganic hybrids of BiI3-polymers with embedded conductive carbon fillers displaying high SNR for direct X-ray imaging detectors

Organic polymers are light weight, low toxic and environmentally stable candidates of interest in X-ray detection application. But low attenuation and high recombination rate of charge carriers cause low sensitivity is major limitation of these detectors. In this work, organic polymers (PS/PMMA) composites were prepared with high-Z inorganic BiI3 by simple dry mixing technique. The organic-inorganic hybrid further embedded with conductive carbon filler (MWCNT, CB, GP) to improve the charge collection of the samples. Resistivity and mobility of the samples were studied with help of Hall measurements and mobility-lifetime was calculated by Hecth equation and found (2.1 ± 0.2) × 10−3 cm2V−1. The elemental analysis of the samples had been done by XPS analysis. The X-ray investigations done by using dental X-ray source and the sensitivity of the samples increases from 3.4 to 200 μGy−1 cm−3 by incorporating CB filler with a low leakage current of order of 33.3 pA/cm2.

Heating Elements based on PVC and Carbon Fillers

Heating Elements based on PVC and Carbon Fillers