Captive Red Junglefowl Research Articles

How Inhibitory Control Relates to Positive and Negative Affective States in Red Junglefowl.

Individual differences in inhibitory control, an aspect of cognition, are found in many species. How this variation links to affective states is not much explored, and could be relevant for welfare. As less fearful, more optimistic, individuals may act more impulsively, inhibitory control could link to less negative, more positive, affective states. Alternatively, poorer inhibitory control could associate with more negative, less positive, affective states, as poorer inhibitory control can result in individuals being less able to adapt to changing environments and more likely to show stereotypies. We here explored in three cohorts (N = 209) of captive red junglefowl, the ancestor of domestic chickens, how inhibitory control associated with affective states. Specifically, we measured inhibitory control with a detour task, and negative and positive affective states with a tonic immobility test and a cognitive judgement bias test, respectively. Cognition and behaviour can differ between ages and sexes. Therefore, we investigated how inhibitory control related to affective states in younger chicks (≈2.5 weeks old), older chicks (≈5 weeks old) and sexually mature adults (≈28 weeks old) of both sexes. In younger chicks, poorer inhibitory control associated with less negative, more positive, affective states. We found no relationship between inhibitory control and affective states in older chicks or adults, nor sex differences regarding how inhibitory control related to affective states. Overall, our results suggest that inhibitory control can link to affective states and that the nature of these links can change over ontogeny.

The osteological microevolution of red junglefowl and domestic fowl under the domestication process

Red junglefowl are regarded as the primary wild ancestor of domestic fowl and are thought to have been domesticated in multiple regions. The osteological microevolution of red junglefowl and domestic fowl during domestication, especially at the earliest stage, has still not been thoroughly investigated, despite the fact that a proper understanding of this process is required to chart the progress of domestication. In this paper, the major long bones of the modern wild red junglefowl, captive red junglefowl in cages, and domestic fowl from various breeds were measured and the data were compared using t-tests and analysis of covariance. The results showed that captive red junglefowl were generally smaller than wild red junglefowl but the distal part of tibiotarsus was relatively thicker in the former. In addition, parts of the wing bone were thinner in captive red junglefowl than in wild red junglefowl. Assuming the morphological difference between extant wild and captive red junglefowl is analogous to that between ancient wild and captive red junglefowl, these differences suggest that body size reduction and other morphological changes occurred in the earliest stage of the domestication process. These results will be useful for estimating the progress of domestication in red junglefowl archaeological remains and making comparisons with domestic fowl bones.

Effective population sizes and adaptive genetic variation in a captive bird population

Captive populations are considered a key component of ex situ conservation programs. Research on multiple taxa has shown the differential success of maintaining demographic versus genetic stability and viability in captive populations. In typical captive populations, usually founded by few or related individuals, genetic diversity can be lost and inbreeding can accumulate rapidly, calling into question their ultimate utility for release into the wild. Furthermore, domestication selection for survival in captive conditions is another concern. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the dynamics of population sizes, particularly the effective population size, and genetic diversity at non-neutral and adaptive loci in captive populations. In this study, we assessed effective population sizes and genetic variation at both neutral microsatellite markers, as well as SNP variants from the MHC-B locus of a captive Red Junglefowl population. This population represents a rare instance of a population with a well-documented history in captivity, following a realistic scenario of chain-of-custody, unlike many captive lab populations. Our analyses, which included 27 individuals comprising the entirety of one captive population show very low neutral and adaptive genetic variation, as well as low effective sizes, which correspond with the known demographic history. Finally, our study also shows the divergent impacts of small effective size and inbreeding in captive populations on microsatellite versus adaptive genetic variation in the MHC-B locus. Our study provides insights into the difficulties of maintaining adaptive genetic variation in small captive populations.

Genetics driven interventions forex situconservation of red junglefowl (Gallus gallus murghi) populations in India

Genetics driven interventions (GDI) are imperative for ex situ conservation to exhort long-term sustenance of small and isolated populations in captivity as they are more prone to an increased extinction risk due to inbreeding and genetic drift. We investigated constitutive genetic attributes of four captive Red Junglefowl (RJF) populations in India, to facilitate the prioritization of the birds to formulate an effective breeding action plan. All the four RJF populations were found to be evident of significant inbreeding but none of them had exhibited any signature of bottleneck footprints in the recent past. Bayesian cluster analysis revealed three distinct groups among the four captive RJF populations. Interestingly, birds of Kufri population were assigned together with Gopalpur as well as with Morni populations, indicating their shared genetic ancestry. Among the four populations, Morni population displayed the richest genetic attributes and was therefore presumed as a key source of genetic variation. Nine birds of Morni population were relatively pure (q-value >0.98) and carried about 50% of the total private alleles of Morni population. Thus, being the foremost reservoir of allelic diversity, these nine birds may be selected for launching alien alleles to other RJF populations to rescue their loss of genetic diversity arising from inbreeding.

A longitudinal study of antipredator behaviour in four successive generations of two populations of captive red junglefowl

Conservation breeding and reintroduction into the wild can only be an effective management tool if behaviours essential for a life in the wild are maintained in captivity. The aim of this study was to investigate how a protected captive environment influences antipredator behaviour over generations. The red junglefowl ( Gallus gallus) was used as a case study. Birds from two different captive populations were followed over four generations. In the last three generations, all birds were hatched and reared in the same indoor settings. Antipredator behaviour was measured in each generation in a standardised test where the birds were exposed to a simulated predator attack. The test was divided into three parts: pre-exposure period, exposure and post-exposure periods. There was an interaction effect between population and generation ( F 3,129 = 4.84, P < 0.01) on behaviour during the pre-exposure period, suggesting that the birds’ “baseline” agitation level may have been altered differently in the two populations. Population differences were also found during the post-exposure period but the populations tended to become more similar over successive generations in their behaviour after the exposure. Furthermore, there were significant effects of generation ( H (d.f. = 1, N = 137) = 10. 94, P < 0.05) as well as population ( H (d.f. = 1, N = 137) = 5.17, P < 0.05) on the immediate reaction to the simulated predator attack. In conclusion, over four successive generations, the two populations altered their antipredator behaviour and tended to become more similar. This study shows that antipredator behaviour may change over generations in a captive environment. This is likely to be one of the most crucial factors for successful reintroduction into the wild and hence, it is a very important aspect to consider for conservation breeding.

Maternal Condition, Reproductive Investment, and Offspring Sex Ratio in Captive Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus)

Abstract Maternal condition can affect reproductive investment in one or more ways. Captive female Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) that were heavier, controlling for tarsus length, produced larger eggs and initiated laying earlier, but did not produce more eggs per clutch. Maternal mass was also a positive predictor of offspring mass. That appears to result from the strong positive relationships between egg size and offspring mass. When the relationship between egg size and offspring mass was statistically controlled, maternal mass no longer predicted offspring mass. Mothers in better condition produced male-biased broods, as predicted when offspring condition depends on maternal condition and when male reproductive success is more dependent than female reproductive success on condition.

Maternal Condition, Reproductive Investment, and Offspring Sex Ratio in Captive Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus)

Maternal Condition, Reproductive Investment, and Offspring Sex Ratio in Captive Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus)

Maternal Condition, Reproductive Investment, and Offspring Sex Ratio in Captive Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus)

Abstract Maternal condition can affect reproductive investment in one or more ways. Captive female Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) that were heavier, controlling for tarsus length, produced larger eggs and initiated laying earlier, but did not produce more eggs per clutch. Maternal mass was also a positive predictor of offspring mass. That appears to result from the strong positive relationships between egg size and offspring mass. When the relationship between egg size and offspring mass was statistically controlled, maternal mass no longer predicted offspring mass. Mothers in better condition produced male-biased broods, as predicted when offspring condition depends on maternal condition and when male reproductive success is more dependent than female reproductive success on condition.

Social environment and immunity in male red jungle fowl

We examined the relationship between social dominance, immune response, and ornamentation in captive red jungle fowl by comparing these variables in males housed individually with a single female to those in the same males after they were placed in flocks with an unfamiliar male and three unfamiliar females. Males with larger combs before being placed in the flocks were more likely to become dominant, and dominant males’ combs grew after flock formation, whereas subordinate males’ combs shrank. Immune response as reflected in hematocrit, immunoglobulin levels, and wing web swelling (a measure of cell-mediated immunity) was stronger in males that later became dominant, both before and after flock formation, although the difference between dominant and subordinate birds was more pronounced after males were housed in the multi-male groups. Dominant and subordinate males also differed in the relationship between comb length and wing web swelling. Among dominant males, individuals with larger combs had significantly larger swellings after flock formation, whereas within the subordinate males, those with relatively larger combs had worse cell-mediated immunity than those with smaller combs. These results suggest that males of different quality pay different costs to maintain both ornamentation and immune defense.

Disease, Endocrine‐‐Immune Interactions, and Sexual Selection

Parasites and disease have been increasingly recognized as agents of ecological and evolutionary importance. Because the endocrine and immune systems are related, it is also likely that hormonally controlled traits, such as secondary sexual characters, may be influenced by responses to disease. Testosterone appears to be associated with a suppressed immune system in many vertebrates, and evidence from captive Red Jungle Fowl suggests that the sexes differ in blood parameters involved in immunity and that comb length is negatively correlated with lymphocyte number in males. Immune system parameters may provide a useful gauge of condition in captive and field—caught animals.

Male Courtship Displays, Ornaments and Female Mate Choice in Captive Red Jungle Fowl

Abstract We studied the role of male courtship behaviour in female mate choice in red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), the ancestor of domestic chickens. The traits most highly correlated with behavioural displays were those most relied upon by females in making mate choice decisions. These traits (comb length, comb colour, eye colour, and spur length) are highly condition-dependent in jungle fowl. Females chose males that displayed at a greater overall intensity in the period after the female was allowed to interact with the males (post-release), but were indifferent to displays during the period before the female could approach the roosters (pre-release). After accounting for the effect of morphology on mate choice, waltzes were the only display that explained a significant amount of variation in male mating success. Chosen and rejected males had different display rates even when the female was not present. Plasma testosterone level was correlated with pre-release behaviours, but not with post-release behaviours or mating success.

Parasites and Male Ornaments in Free-Ranging and Captive Red Jungle Fowl

Abstract The morphology and parasite burdens of culled free-ranging red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) from the San Diego Zoo were compared with those of captive roosters used previously in sexual selection experiments, to determine if results obtained with the captive birds were relevant to more natural situations. Zoo roosters had three helminth gut parasites: Ascaridia galli, tapeworms, and Heterakis. Parasite distribution was generally over-dispersed, with most individuals having none or few worms and some having heavy parasite burdens. These levels were comparable to those artificially induced in test roosters. The appearance of the zoo birds was similar to test roosters as well. Higher parasite burdens in the zoo birds was negatively related to hackle feather redness, comb length, and especially testis volume. The latter finding is discussed in light of information about the relationship between testosterone levels, sexual selection, and the immune system. A new analysis of female choice of uninfected controls versus experimentally infected roosters suggests that females prefer a multivariate array of traits perceived as a continuous, rather than categorical, variable.

Nest Defense by Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus) Hens: The Roles of Renesting Potential, Parental Experience and Brood Reproductive Value

AbstractReproductive‐effort theory predicts that parents of any given age should expend more parental effort (1) as their residual reproductive value declines, and (2) as the reproductive value of offspring increases. An observational and experimental study of nest defense by captive red jungle fowl hens was used to examine these two predictions. Both young and old individuals significantly increased defense of the second nest compared to the first nest within a season; this pattern occurred for the defense of both eggs and chicks. Old hens showed significantly greater defense of both eggs and chicks in each of the nests than did young hens. Both young and old hens were significantly more defensive of chicks than eggs in each of two clutches of a season. Hens also reduced their nest defense significantly at the end of a two to three‐day period after their chicks were replaced with eggs, and increased their nest defense after eggs were exchanged for chicks. Hens given four chicks showed more vigorous defense than hens given two chicks. When the brood size of hens with four chicks was reduced to one chick, the hens responded by exhibiting less vigorous nest defense. These patterns of nest defense in jungle fowl were not confounded by parental experience of hens, or differences in offspring quality that are related to time of breeding, maternal age, sire genetic quality or vulnerability of offspring to weather.

Parental and Courtship Feeding in Red Jungle Fowl

THIS paper describes parental and courtship feeding in a free-living, semidomesticated population of Red Jungle Fowl, Gallus gallus, and discusses their functions and possible origin. Published behavioral studies of unconfined jungle fowl include those of Beebe (1918-1922), Johnson (1963), Collias et al. (1966), and Collias and Collias (1967). Kruijt (1964) and Lill (1966) studied captive Red Jungle Fowl. Wood-Gush (1955) and Guhl (1962) review the behavior of domestic fowl. These authors say little about parental or courtship feeding. The young of gallinaceous birds are precocial, but they need help from one or both parents to obtain food during their first few weeks. Typically the parent locates food and behaves in such a way that the young will get it. The parent may let the chick take the morsel from its beak, drop the food in front of the chick, or use specific calls to alert the chick to the presence of the food. All these behavior patterns I include under the term parental feeding. In many galliforms (Stokes and Williams, MS) the male may perform somewhat similar feeding behavior toward the hen as part of his courtship. This is commonly called tidbitting (Domm, 1927) from the fact that the cock often displays with choice morsels. The Red Jungle Fowl in the 40-hectare San Diego Zoo are unconfined, but each bird belongs to a small social unit and remains within a territory the entire year (Collias et al., 1966). The birds obtain some natural food, but rely primarily upon food provided for other exhibit animals by the zoo keepers and the general public. I made intensive studies largely on the birds of the Monkey Mesa from April through June 1969. I could recognize individually 16 cocks and 22 hens that used this area by means of comb configuration, scars, brood size, and other characteristics. They formed three separate flocks, each dominated by a single adult cock, with little overlapping of home range. The birds were so tame I could feed them at close range. The zoo jungle fowl are normally single brooded with a peak of hatching in April. In 1964 and 1965 the midwinter population ranged between 125 and 142, with cocks making up 56 per cent of the total (Collias et al., 1966). In 1969 I estimated the population at 222 birds, almost double that of 1964 and 1965. In a single afternoon's census on 21 May of almost all the available habitat I counted 124 cocks. These fell into two distinct age classes