Fruiting Body Caps Research Articles

Mercury in forest mushrooms and topsoil from the Yunnan highlands and the subalpine region of the Minya Konka summit in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau.

This study aimed to investigate and discuss the occurrence and accumulation of mercury in the fruiting bodies of wild-growing fungi (Macromycetes) collected from montane forests in two regions of southwestern China with differences in soil geochemistry, climate and geographical conditions. Fungal mycelia in soils of the subalpine region of the Minya Konka (Gongga Mountain) in Sichuan and in the highlands of Yunnan efficiently accumulated mercury in fruiting bodies (mushrooms). The examined sites in Yunnan with highly mineralized red and yellow soils showed Hg contents ranging from 0.066 to 0.28 mg kg−1 dry biomass (db) which is roughly similar to the results obtained for samples collected from sites with dark soils relatively rich in organic matter from a remote, the subalpine region of Minya Konka. Due to the remoteness of the subalpine section of Minya Konka, as well as its elevation and climate, airborne mercury from long-range transport could be deposited preferentially on the topsoil and the Hg levels determined in soil samples taken beneath the fruiting bodies were up to 0.48 mg kg−1 dry matter. In Yunnan, with polymetallic soils (Circum-Pacific Mercuriferous Belt), Amanita mushrooms showed mercury in caps of fruiting bodies of up to 7.3 mg kg−1 dry biomass. Geogenic Hg from the mercuriferous belt seems to be the overriding source of mercury accumulated in mushrooms foraged in the regions of Yunnan, while long-range atmospheric transport and subsequent deposition are the mercury sources for specimens foraged in the region of Minya Konka.

Mercury bioaccumulation by Suillus bovinus mushroom and probable dietary intake with the mushroom meal.

This paper reports the results of the study of the efficiency of accumulation and distribution of mercury (Hg) in the fruiting bodies of fungus Suillus bovinus and the probable dietary intake of Hg and the potential health risk. Fungal fruiting bodies and soil materials were collected from 13 background areas in the northern part of Poland between 1993 and 2013. Mercury in the caps of fruiting bodies varied from 0.10 ± 0.06 to 0.79 ± 0.40 mg kg−1 dry biomass and in the stipes from 0.083 ± 0.028 to 0.51 ± 0.22 mg kg−1 dry biomass. The mean values of cap to stipe Hg content quotient varied from 1.3 ± 0.2 to 2.6 ± 0.6. The Hg content in the upper 0–10 cm layer of soil substrate varied from 0.015 ± 0.004 to 0.031 ± 0.019 mg kg−1 dry biomass. S. bovinus could be considered as an efficient accumulator of Hg, at least from low level polluted soils, and the values of Hg bioconcentration factor (BCF) varied from 6.4 ± 2.2 to 45 ± 20 for caps and from 3.8 ± 1.4 to 29 ± 11 for stipes. A conventional meal (300 g) portion of S. bovinus foraged from background areas provides Hg dose far below the provisionally tolerable weekly intake or recommended reference dose set for this element by authorities. An examination of published data on Hg in fruiting bodies of fungi genus Suillus showed low contamination of specimens foraged from background areas. Also reviewed are published data on Hg in fungi genus Suillus collected worldwide.

Application of hanging copper amalgam drop electrode for voltammetric determination of selenium content in fruiting bodies of selected mushrooms

A high-sensitivity method based on the CSV with the differential pulse step performed at the hanging copper amalgam drop electrode (HCADE) has been applied for selenium trace determination in selected mushrooms. The HCADE is characterised by simple handling, regeneration facility as well as very good repeatability and reproducibility of the surface. For synthetic solution LOD of Se(IV) as low as 0.25 nM (0.02 μg · kg−1) at preconcentration time (120 s) could be obtained with RSD = 2.3% (n = 5). The accuracy of the method was validated by analysis of certified reference materials (BCR 185R). Fruiting body caps of 12 selected macrofungi species from Basidiomycetes have been investigated. The selenium content determined in the dry matter of mushroom samples was equal to 0.49 ‒ 11.7 mg · kg−1. The highest concentration of selenium was found in Boletus edulis and the lowest one in Laetiporus sulphureus on-plant growing pathogen.

DNA marking of some quantitative trait loci in the cultivated edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (Fr.) Kumm.

Fungi of the genus Pleurotus, in particular, species Pleurotus ostreatus (common oyster mushroom) are among most cultivated fungi in the world. Due to intense rates of development of studies in this field, efficient breeding programs are highly required in the search for new P. ostreatus strains. The principal traits used worldwide for selecting strains are intensity of fruitbearing, fruit body cap color (for some consumptive markets), and mycelium growth rate. In this connection, the objective of this work was to study these quantitative traits and to find molecular markers, which could be employed to accomplish breeding programs. In general, we found 12 genomic loci (quantitative trait loci, QTLs) controlling mycelium growth rate of oyster and six QTLs responsible for the fruit body cap color. The genetic map of P. ostreatus was constructed, and all markers of quantitative traits found by us were located on this genetic map. The obtained linkage map can be a useful tool for the accomplishment of breeding programs to improve economically important traits of oyster mushroom.

Temporal variability in 20 chemical elements content of Parasol Mushroom (Macrolepiota procera) collected from two sites over a few years

Mature specimens of Parasol Mushroom were collected annually in the outskirts of the Siemiany (2000–2003) and Rafa (2001–2003) sites in the northern part of Poland to examine temporal variations and similarities in the composition of 20 chemical elements. Analysis was done under the same condition and using well-validated analytical methods. Elements were determined by inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectroscopy and cold vapour–atomic absorption spectroscopy (Hg). The ranges of Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Hg, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, Sr and Zn concentrations in the caps of fruiting bodies were similar (p > 0.05; Mann-Whitney U test) for both geographically distant sites, and these specimens from Rafa were more contaminated with Pb (p < 0.05; Mann-Whitney U test). The annual collections of caps in the Siemiany site varied in Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Hg, Na, Rb and Sr and contents (0.05 < p < 0.001), while they were similar in Cr, K, Mg, Mn, Ni, P, Pb and Zn (p > 0.05; Mann-Whitney U test). The annual collections of specimens from the Rafa site varied in contents of Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Fe, Hg, K, Mg, Mn, P, Rb and Zn (p > 0.05), while they were similar in Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Na, Ni, Pb and Sr (p < 0.05). The results of this study imply that metallic elements content of Parasol Mushroom collected at the same undisrupted sites, and hence keeping the same geochemical condition for mushroom development and fructification (the same stands and probably the same mycelia), can fluctuate over the years or the life-span of mycelium. Hence, when assessing the nutritional value of essential metallic elements and status of non-essential or toxic metallic elements in Parasol's Mushroom caps (and probably also of other mushrooms species) to man, the possible fluctuation in contents over time have to be taken into account.

The determination of molybdenum in selected mushrooms by stripping voltammetry

Abstract The highly sensitive method of adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV), with differential pulse steps, was performed at a mercury film electrode and has been applied here for the determination of trace molybdenum content in selected wild mushrooms. Fruiting body caps of 12 selected macrofungi species from Basidiomycetes have been investigated. Molybdenum content of investigated samples was determined in the range of 0.006 to 0.38 mg kg−1 of dry matter. The highest value of molybdenum content was found in Leccinum rufum and the lowest in Lactarius deliciosus.

Molecular defense systems are expressed in the king bolete (Boletus edulis) growing near metal smelters

The induction of defense systems against metal exposure was investigated in 48 wild-growing fruiting bodies of the king bolete (Boletus edulis) from two areas polluted with several transition metals from smelters, as well as five reference areas. To determine the degree of metal exposure, cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) were determined in caps of fruiting bodies by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), whereas mercury (Hg) was determined by cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectrometry (CVAFS). Caps were analyzed further with respect to relative activities of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), as well as concentrations of total glutathione (GSHTOT = GSH + GSSG) and relative concentrations of heat shock protein 70 kDa (HSP70). The results showed that concentrations of the four metals, as well as SOD, CAT and HSP70, were significantly elevated in the exposed group (Mann-Whitney, P < or = 0.001). In contrast, GSHTOT was significantly lowered in the exposed group (P < or = 0.05). Significant positive correlations were established between concentrations of Cd, Zn, Hg, or Cu and activities of SOD (Spearman's P < or = 0.01 for the association between SOD and Cd, P < or = 0.001 for all other metal exposure parameters), CAT (P < or = 0.001 for all exposure parameters), or expression of HSP70 (P < or = 0.001 for all exposure parameters). Significant negative correlations were found between total GSH and Cd (P < or = 0.001), Zn (P < or = 0.001), or Hg (P < or = 0.05). We conclude that antioxidant enzymes are induced in wild-growing B. edulis exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of potentially toxic transition metals; whereas the net consumption of GSH that occurs with increasing metal exposure may reflect GSH consumption by mechanisms of metal detoxification. Finally, the induction of HSP70 suggests that the antioxidant response and the mechanisms in which GSH is consumed are insufficient for protection against the harmful effects of severe metal stress.

Molecular defense systems are expressed in the king bolete (Boletus edulis) growing near metal smelters

The induction of defense systems against metal exposure was investigated in 48 wild-growing fruiting bodies of the king bolete (Boletus edulis) from two areas polluted with several transition metals from smelters, as well as five reference areas. To determine the degree of metal exposure, cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) were determined in caps of fruiting bodies by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), whereas mercury (Hg) was determined by cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectrometry (CVAFS). Caps were analyzed further with respect to relative activities of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), as well as concentrations of total glutathione (GSHTOT = GSH + GSSG) and relative concentrations of heat shock protein 70 kDa (HSP70). The results showed that concentrations of the four metals, as well as SOD, CAT and HSP70, were significantly elevated in the exposed group (Mann-Whitney, P ≤ 0.001). In contrast, GSHTOT was significantly lowered in the exposed group (P ≤ 0.05). Significant positive correlations were established between concentrations of Cd, Zn, Hg, or Cu and activities of SOD (Spearman’s P ≤ 0.01 for the association between SOD and Cd, P ≤ 0.001 for all other metal exposure parameters), CAT (P ≤ 0.001 for all exposure parameters), or expression of HSP70 (P ≤ 0.001 for all exposure parameters). Significant negative correlations were found between total GSH and Cd (P ≤ 0.001), Zn (P ≤ 0.001), or Hg (P ≤ 0.05). We conclude that antioxidant enzymes are induced in wild-growing B. edulis exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of potentially toxic transition metals; whereas the net consumption of GSH that occurs with increasing metal exposure may reflect GSH consumption by mechanisms of metal detoxification. Finally, the induction of HSP70 suggests that the antioxidant response and the mechanisms in which GSH is consumed are insufficient for protection against the harmful effects of severe metal stress.

Selenium level of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus

Selenium intake of the human population is very distinct and depends on the Se-content of consumed food. The higher intake of selenium can decrease the risk of many health problems in human and animal organisms. The main task of this work was to obtain new comparable data on Se content of Agaricus bisporus mushroom. The selenium content of different, common varieties of Agaricus bisporus and of its three cultivation's flushes was determined. The Se content of varieties varies between 0.46 mg kg-1 d.m. and 5.63 mg kg-1 d.m., and the average content is 2.82 (± 1.48) mg kg-1 d.m. The caps of fruit bodies have always higher selenium content than the stipe. The average cap/stipe selenium ratio is 1.29. The changes of Se concentration during the cultivation (in cultivation's flushes) are not significant. The most important cultivated mushroom species of the world (Agaricus bisporus) has, in addition to other more valuable properties, a remarkable Se-content. Consumption of fruit bodies can improve the Se supply of human organism, i.e. some health risks can be decreased.

Mineral elements in the important cultivated mushrooms Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus

The mineral elements of Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus (separately in the caps and stipes of the fruit body) were analysed. The main conclusions are: 1. 1. The classical (conventional) and the new cultivation methods produce different mineral compositions in champignon. The new method (on pure wheat straw) produced lower B, Ca, Cu, Na, Zn and higher K, Fe, Mg, Ni, P and Ti concentrations. 2. 2. The caps of fruit bodies have, in general, greater concentrations of mineral elements than the stipes in both A. bisporus and P. ostreatus. The exceptions are Ba, Cd, Cr, Li and Sr, whose concentrations are approximately identical in caps and stipes). 3. 3. A. bisporus has higher P, K, Ca but lower trace element concentrations than P. ostreatus, which has higher Mg, B, Cd, Fe and Mn concentrations. 4. 4. Accumulation of heavy metals was not found in the samples examined.

Influence of the water potential of the casing soil on crop yield and on dry-matter content, osmotic potential and mannitol content of the fruit bodies ofAgaricus bisporus

In the culture of the mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, significant amounts of water are taken up from the casing soil. The water potential of the casing soil was lowered by adding sodium chloride. A lowering of the water potential reduced crop yield, slowed fruit-body development and increased the dry-matter content of sporophores as a percentage of wet weight. Values for dry-matter content of the fruit bodies ranged from 6.7 to 11.5%. Regulation of dry-matter content is therefore possible by adjusting the concentration of salt in the casing soil. The total dry weight of all harvested fruit bodies of the first two flushes (breaks) from cultures with a low water potential in the casing soil (high salt) was as high as that of the crop of cultures with a high water potential (no salt added). The total concentration of osmotically active substances in the pressed juice of caps of fruit bodies increased with decreasing water potential of the casing soil. The increase in mannitol concentration of the press juice co...

Co-ordinate control of ammonium-scavenging enzymes in the fruit body cap ofCoprinus cinereusavoids inhibition of sporulation by ammonium

Observation of stained nuclei coupled with determination of activity of NADP-linked glutamate dehydrogenase (NADP-GDH) and glutamine synthetase (GS) in the same tissue, showed that increase in activity of both enzymes was initiated as karyogamy became evident in normally-developing basidia of fruit bodies of the basidiomycete Coprinus cinereus. Derepression of the two enzymes was highly positively correlated (correlation coefficient 0.91), implying co-ordinated regulation. Application and injection of solutions of ammonium salts to Coprinus fruit body caps arrested further development. Other salts had no such effect, indicating a specific sensitivity to ammonium. Similar enzymic events occur during sporulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is also sensitive to inhibition by ammonium salts. It is concluded that meiosis generally includes ammonium-sensitive processes and that co-ordinated derepression of the ammonium scavenging NADP-GDH and GS is a device to ensure removal of ammonium ions from the meiotic cell.

Co-ordinate control of ammonium-scavenging enzymes in the fruit body cap of Coprinus cinereus avoids inhibition of sporulation by ammonium

Co-ordinate control of ammonium-scavenging enzymes in the fruit body cap of Coprinus cinereus avoids inhibition of sporulation by ammonium

The formation of agaric gills

The spore-bearing gills of agaric fungi are plates of differentiated tissue suspended from the fruit-body cap. Intuitively, it would seem likely that such plates would develop and extend by ‘downward’ growth of the distal edge of the gill; but this is not the case. Rather, the roots of the gills extend into the steadily replenished undifferentiated tissue of the cap context. The formative element appears to be a gill organizer in the tissue at the extreme end of the gill cavity.

Karyogamy-dependent enzyme derepression in the basidiomycete [formula omitted

Observation of stained nuclei coupled with determination of activity of NADP-linked glutamate dehydrogenase (NADP-GDH) in the same tissue, showed that increase in enzyme activity was initiated as karyogamy became evident in normally-developing fruit bodies of the basidiomycete Coprinus cinereus . Enzyme activity stabilised for about 4 hours during meiosis, but resumed after meiosis II, and continued to increase until spore maturation. When the time of exposure to light was varied, karyogamy occurred only in tissues which received at least 24 h light exposure and, most significantly, derepression of NADP-GDH was apparent at the time of or very soon after karyogamy. It is concluded that expression of NADP-GDH in the fruit body cap of Coprinus cinereus is either a component part of the cellular programme involved in karyogamy, or is directly triggered by that programme. Parallel assays showed that protein content of fruit body cap tissue declined during development; the decline started before meiosis and also arrested during the division. A major flux in cyclic-AMP content occurred at a much earlier stage, a large accumulation in fruit body initials being rapidly reduced as these developed into primordia. Levels of cAMP similar to those recorded in vegetative cells were approached prior to meiosis, suggesting that this nucleotide has little involvement in development of the fruit body after formation of initials. Onset of large-scale utilization of accumulated glycogen proved to be a post-meiotic event.

Developmental Biology of Higher Fungi.

List of contributors Preface 1. Resource relations - an overview A. D. M. Rayner, R. Watling and Juliet C. Frankland 2. Tropical agarics: resource relations and fruiting periodicity J. N. Hedger 3. Armillaria: resources and hosts J. Rishbeth 4. The growth of Crinipellis perniciosa in living and dead cocoa tissue B. E. J. Wheeler 5. Mycorrhizal dynamics during forest tree development J. Dighton and P. A. Mason 6. A comparative ultrastructural analysis of the host-fungus interface in mycorrhizal and parasitic associations J. A. Duddridge 7. The challenge of the dolipore/parenthesome septum Royall T. Moore 8. Dikaryon formation Lorna A. Casselton and Androulla Economou 9. Cytology of hyphal interactions and reactions in Schizophyllum commune N. K. Todd and R. C. Aylmore 10. Morphogenesis of vegetative organs A. D. M. Rayner, J. A. Powell, W. Thompson and D. H. Jennings 11. Developmental character of agarics Roy Watling 12. Elongation of the stipe of Coprinus cinereus G. W. Gooday 13. Differentiation and pattern formation in the fruit body cap of Coprinus cinereus Isabelle V. Rosin, Jacqueline Horner and David Moore 14. Determination of the initial steps in differentiation in Coprinus congregatus Ian K. Ross 15. Production and roles of extrcellular enzymes during morphogenesis of basidiomycete fungi D. A. Wood 16. The biochemistry of Agaricus fructification J. B. W. Hammond 17. Growth and development of Lentinus edodes on a chemically defined medium Gary F. Leatham 18. Ultrastructural aspects of fruit body differentiation in Flammulina velutipes M. A. J. Williams, A. Beckett and N. D. Read 19. Developmental genetics - from spore to sporophore T. J. Eiliot 20. Nucelic acid studies in Schizolphyllum Robert C. Ullrich, Charles P. Novotny and Charles A. Specht 21. Molecular biology of fruit body formation in Schizophyllum commune J. G. H. Wessel, J. J. M. Dons and O. M. H. De Vries 22. Meiosis and genetic recombination in Coprinus cinereus Patricia J. Pukkila, David M. Binniger, Jeane R. Cassify, Beverly M. Yashar and Miriam E. Zolan 23. Strategies for mushroom breeding Carlene A. Raper 24. Biological and technological aspects of commercial mushroom growing P. B. Flegg 25. Composting technology Lung-Chi Wu 26. Secondary metabolic products of selected agarics Norman Claydon 27. Developmental biology of agarics - and overview A. F. M. Reikinders and David Moore Species index Subject index.

Plasma membrane ultrastructural changes caused by mechanical stress in the formation of extracellular ice as a primary cause of slow freezing injury in fruit-bodies of Basidiomycetes ( Lyophyllum ulmarium (Fr.) Kühner)

By slow freezing, hyphae, which constitute the fruit-body cap of Lyophyllum ulmarium (Fr.) Kühner, were severely deformed by the formation of extracellular ice. The plasma membrane of hyphae showed distinct intramembrane particle aggregation only in the local regions where the inner surfaces of the plasma membrane in the same hyphae were brought into direct contact as a result of the cellular deformation resulting from the formation of extracellular ice. However, no intramembrane particle aggregation occurred in the plasma membrane regions without such a direct contact. Osmotic manipulation of hyphae without freezing caused neither distinct cellular deformation nor intramembrane particle aggregation in plasma membrane. The percentage of hyphae showing intramembrane particle aggregation in the plasma membrane of slowly frozen samples showed a close relation with the percentage damage as measured by the ion-leakage method after thawing. From these results, it was suggested that the primary cause of slow freezing injury in hyphae was due to mechanical stress by the formation of extracellular ice, which brought about lethal plasma membrane changes.

Substrate preference of .GAMMA.-glutamyltransferase from caps of fruiting bodies of Lentinus edodes.

Substrate preference of .GAMMA.-glutamyltransferase from caps of fruiting bodies of Lentinus edodes.