Mycoplasma Canis Research Articles

The prevalence of Mycoplasma canis in the vaginas of breeding bitches.

How bacterial infections of the reproductive tract cause infertility and the correlation between the health status of female dogs and the presence of Mycoplasma canis (M. canis) in the vagina are still unclear. The aim of this study was to determine the M. canis population in the vagina of breeding bitches and to correlate this microbial population with some fertility outcomes. A total of 275 breeding bitches were included in the study. Vaginal samples were collected for microbiological and PCR testing. Mycoplasma canis was identified in 34.91% of the samples. One-third of bitches from the problem-free group and 41.18% from the group with problems were positive. In general, there were no significant differences in the prevalence of M. canis between the groups (P-value > 0.05). Mycoplasma canis occurs in both mated and unmated bitches and was found in a large number of kennels (67%). There was a correlation between M. canis in the kennel and the incidence of single puppy deaths and low litter sizes. There was also some correlation between the presence of M. canis in the vagina with at least two other bacterial strains and reproductive disorders. Our results indicate that M. canis is part of the normal vaginal flora of breeding bitches, although a role for this bacterium in causing some reproductive disorders remains to be disproved.

Association of Mycoplasma canis with Fertility Disorders in Dogs: A Case Study Supported by Clinical Examination, PCR, 16S Microbiota Profiling, and Serology.

The role of Mycoplasma canis in canine fertility disorders is still poorly understood. As infection is often asymptomatic, there is an increasing need for appropriate diagnostic methods and treatment plans that would allow the reliable detection of M. canis infection and rapid alleviation of infection symptoms in affected dogs. In this study, we included 14 dogs with fertility problems and 16 dogs without fertility disorder signs. We compared clinical examination data and selected laboratory parameters (hematology and biochemistry) between the groups. We performed PCR-based detection of M. canis and 16S rRNA gene-based microbiota profiling of DNA isolated from vaginal and preputial swabs. Dog sera were tested for the presence of M. canis-specific antibodies. Hematological and selected biochemical parameters showed no differences between groups. PCR-based detection of M. canis in the samples was consistent with the results of 16S microbiota profiling. Several other bacterial taxa were also identified that could potentially be involved in different fertility disorders. Serological methods were not accurate enough since high cross-reactivity rates were observed. In the future, more accurate and efficient methods will be needed to determine the role of M. canis and its true role in the pathogenesis of specific fertility disorders in dogs.

The Impact of Microorganisms on Canine Semen Quality.

Various microorganisms, including Mycoplasma spp., have been reported in canine ejaculate. The impact of these microorganisms on semen quality remains unclear. This study included 63 male intact healthy dogs aged 1-8 years. One dog exhibited azoospermia, indicating a relatively low incidence of this condition. Interestingly, 36.5% of the examined dogs tested negative for both aerobic bacteria and mycoplasmas, while 12.7% tested positive for bacterial presence. Additionally, 60.3% of the dogs tested positive for Mycoplasma spp. using PCR, with most carrying 1-2 Mycoplasma species. We found no significant difference in semen characteristics between Mycoplasma-positive and -negative dogs. The detection of Mycoplasma was not significantly linked to the presence of bacteria in semen. All the microorganisms identified were classified as saprophytic flora. Our findings indicate that Mycoplasma spp. is common in canine ejaculate. Semen quality parameters were not correlated with the presence of Mycoplasma spp. in semen. Mycoplasma HRC689 was the most common species. Some dogs exhibited no presence of aerobic bacteria or mycoplasmas in their semen. Our study highlights the common presence of Mycoplasma spp. in canine ejaculate. Semen quality shows no correlation with Mycoplasma presence. Some canine ejaculate is sterile. Our findings suggest the existence of undescribed species of canine mycoplasmas, necessitating advanced diagnostic techniques like NGS for their identification.

Molecular determination of virulence factors of Mycoplasma cynos isolated from household dogs

Mycoplasma cynos is a member of the class Mollicutes. It is more pathogenic, more host specific than other canine Mycoplasma, and only associated with respiratory diseases in dogs due to producing many virulence factors, recently neuraminidase and hemagglutinin. The study was done to detect the neuraminidase and hemagglutinin of Mycoplasma cynos isolated from the upper respiratory tract and conjunctival infections in household dogs. Mycoplasma isolates obtained from nasal, oropharyngeal, and conjunctival swabs from household dogs suffering from respiratory diseases in different veterinary clinics in Mosul city. DNA extraction was prepared , PCR and sequencing of 16S rRNA, then Mycoplasma cynos was examined for neuraminidase and hemagglutinin using specific primers.The results showed the identification of Mycoplasma cynos strain "SM-MY-M23" under accession number“OQ446513” in percentage (67.6%), and detection of neuraminidase only. Results obtained are considered the first record of M. cynos and the important virulence factor (Neuraminidase) from household dogs in Iraq.

The lack of the influence of various species of Mycoplasma spp. on canine semen quality

Mycoplasmas colonize fish, reptiles, birds and mammals, being commensals or causing diseases, sometimes severe in ruminants, swine, poultry, or wildlife animals. So far, 15 species of canine Mycoplasma spp. have been described. Conflicting results have been presented regarding the pathogenicity of Mycoplasma spp. Although many virulence factors of these bacteria have been described, they still require attention. The main aim of our study was to evaluate the presence of known canine Mycoplasmas in the male reproductive tract of clinically healthy dogs. The second aim was to check if Mycoplasma spp. cause any abnormalities in semen quality that could have further consequences and to propose the schemes for managing the carriers.83.3% of examined dogs were Mycoplasma spp. -positive dogs, and most of them were the carriers of more than one species. Six dogs had azoospermic ejaculates. The total spermatozoa numbers were similar in Mycoplasma -positive and negative groups. Motility was slightly higher in Mycoplasma spp.-negative group, but the difference was not statistically significant. There was no significant difference in semen characteristics between the carriers and Mycoplasma spp.-negative dogs. Neither the individual species nor the number of species strains had a significant effect on sperm morphological parameters as well as viability.Semen quality parameters are not correlated with the species found on the prepuce. Over 70% Mycoplasma spp.- positive dogs have more than one species of this bacteria. Despite finding mycoplasmas in azoospermic dogs, we suggest that they were not the cause of infertility. Mycoplasma spp. could be a part of normal microbiota in canine prepuce in individuals without any clinical signs.

Genomic characterization of Mycoplasma edwardii isolated from a dog bite induced cat wound reveals multiple horizontal gene transfer events and loss of the CRISPR/Cas system.

A domestic short hair cat (Felis catus) suffering from a purulent wound infection resulting from a dog bite was sampled for bacterial culture and isolation as the wound had been unresponsive to prolonged antimicrobial treatment. A mycoplasma was isolated from the wound. Whole genome sequencing of the isolate was performed using short-read Illumina and long-read Oxford Nanopore chemistry, and the organism was identified as Mycoplasma edwardii. Comparison of the genome sequence of the isolate to a reference M. edwardii genome sequence (canid isolate) identified the loss of several key bacterial factors involved in genome editing, as well the insertion of several novel ORFs most closely related to those found in other canine mycoplasmas, specifically Mycoplasma canis, M. cynos, M. molare and M. maculosa. This is only the second known report of disease caused by M. edwardii in a non-canid species, and the first report of it infecting and causing clinical disease in a cat.

Validation of a real-time PCR panel for detection and quantification of nine pathogens commonly associated with canine infectious respiratory disease

Canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD) is a complicated respiratory syndrome in dogs [1–3]. A panel PCR was developed [4] to detect nine pathogens commonly associated with CIRD: Mycoplasma cynos, Mycoplasma canis, Bordetella bronchiseptica; canine adenovirus type 2, canine herpesvirus 1, canine parainfluenza virus, canine distemper virus, canine influenza virus and canine respiratory coronavirus [5–16]. To evaluate diagnostic performance of the assay, 740 nasal swab and lung tissue samples were collected and tested with the new assay, and compared to an older version of the assay detecting the same pathogens except that it does not differentiate the two Mycoplasma species. Results indicated that the new assay had the same level of specificity, but with higher diagnostic sensitivity and had identified additional samples with potential co-infections. To confirm the new assay is detecting the correct pathogens, samples with discrepant results between the two assays were sequence-confirmed. Spiking a high concertation target to samples carrying lower concentrations of other targets was carried out and the results demonstrated that there was no apparent interference among targets in the same PCR reaction. Another spike-in experiment was used to determine detection sensitivity between nasal swab and lung tissue samples, and similar results were obtained.•A nine-pathogen CIRD PCR panel assay had identified 139 positives from 740 clinical samples with 60 co-infections;•High-concentration target does not have apparent effect on detecting low-concentration targets;•Detection sensitivity were similar between nasal swab and lung tissue samples.

The influence of Mycoplasma species on human and canine semen quality: a review.

Mycoplasma species (spp.) are bacteria that are difficult to detect. Currently, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is considered the most effective diagnostic tool to detect these microorganisms in both human and veterinary medicine. There are 13 known species of human Mycoplasma and 15 species of canine Mycoplasma. Owing to the difficulties in identifying the individual species of Mycoplasma, there is a lack of information regarding which species are saprophytic and which are pathogenic. The prevalence of the individual species is also unknown. In addition, in both humans and dogs, the results of some studies on the impact of Mycoplasma are conflicting. The presence of Mycoplasma spp. on the epithelium of reproductive tract is often associated with infertility, although they are also detected in healthy individuals. The occurrence of Mycoplasma spp. is more common in dogs (even 89%) than in humans (1.3%-4%). This is probably because the pH of a dog's genital is more conducive to the growth of Mycoplasma spp. than that of humans. Phylogenetically, human and canine Mycoplasma are related, and majority of them belong to the same taxonomic group. Furthermore, 40% of canine Mycoplasma spp. are placed in common clusters with those of human. This suggests that species from the same cluster can play a similar role in the canine and human reproductive tracts. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge about the impact of Mycoplasma on canine and human male fertility as well as the prospects of further development in this field.

High-throughput microfluidic real-time PCR for the simultaneous detection of selected vector-borne pathogens in dogs in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

A scarcity of information on the occurrence of zoonotic vector-borne pathogens (VBPs), alongside a lack of human and animal health authorities'awareness of pre-existing data, augment the risk of VBP infection for local people and limit our ability to establish control programs. This holds especially true in low-middle income countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). This dearth of information on zoonotic VBPs is bolstered by the inability of previously used diagnostic tests, including conventional molecular diagnostic methods, to detect the full spectrum of relevant pathogens. Considering this, we set out to apply a microfluidic qPCR assay capable of detecting 43 bacterial and protozoan pathogens from blood to accrue critical baseline data for VBPs occurrence in BiH. A total of 408 dogs were tested of which half were infected with at least one VBP of zoonotic or veterinary importance. Leishmania infantum was found in 18% of dogs, reaching a prevalence as high as 38% in urbanized areas of Sarajevo. These data highlight substantially higher levels of L. infantum prevalence when compared to that previously reported using conventional methods using the same samples. Additionally, this high-throughput microfluidic qPCR assay was able to detect pathogens rarely or never reported in canines in BiH, including Anaplasma phagocytophilum (3%), Anaplasma platys (0.2%), haemotropic Mycoplasma (1%) and Hepatozoon canis (26%). Our report of the endemicity of important zoonotic pathogens and those of clinical significance to dogs emphasizes the need for urgent implementation of surveillance and control for VBPs in BiH, targeting both animal and human infections within the country.

Development of a three-panel multiplex real-time PCR assay for simultaneous detection of nine canine respiratory pathogens

Infectious respiratory disease is one of the most common diseases in dogs worldwide. Several bacterial and viral pathogens can serve as causative agents of canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD), including Mycoplasma cynos, Mycoplasma canis, Bordetella bronchiseptica, canine adenovirus type 2 (CAdV-2), canine herpesvirus 1 (CHV-1), canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV), canine distemper virus (CDV), canine influenza virus (CIA) and canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV). Since these organisms cause similar clinical symptoms, disease diagnosis based on symptoms alone can be difficult. Therefore, a quick and accurate test is necessary to rapidly identify the presence and relative concentrations of causative CIRD agents. In this study, a multiplex real-time PCR panel assay was developed and composed of three subpanels for detection of the aforementioned pathogens. Correlation coefficients (R2) were >0.993 for all singleplex and multiplex real-time PCR assays with the exception of one that was 0.988; PCR amplification efficiencies (E) were between 92.1% and 107.8% for plasmid DNA, and 90.6–103.9% for RNA templates. In comparing singular and multiplex PCR assays, the three multiplex reactions generated similar R2 and E values to those by corresponding singular reactions, suggesting that multiplexing did not interfere with the detection sensitivities. The limit of detection (LOD) of the multiplex real-time PCR for DNA templates was 5, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 4, 24 and 10 copies per microliter for M. cynos, M. canis, B. brochiseptica, CAdV-2, CHV-1, CPIV, CDV, CIA and CRCoV, respectively; and 3, 2, 6, 17, 4 and 8 copies per microliter for CAdV-2, CHV-1, CPIV, CDV, CIA and CRCoV, respectively, when RNA templates were used for the four RNA viruses. No cross-detection was observed among the nine pathogens. For the 740 clinical samples tested, the newly designed PCR assay showed higher diagnostic sensitivity compared to an older panel assay; pathogen identities from selected samples positive by the new assay but undetected by the older assay were confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Our data showed that the new assay has higher diagnostic sensitivity while maintaining the assay's specificity, as compared to the older version of the panel assay.

Canine-to-Human Transmission of Mycoplasma canis in the Central Nervous System.

Dog bites remain a common occurrence in our society, particularly in toddlers and small children under the age of 2. Injuries to the head and face, more common in younger children, can often lead to significant morbidity. Additionally, there continues to be considerable clinical equipoise for standardized post-dog bite injury management. Here, we present the only reported pediatric case in the literature of Mycoplasma canis-associated central nervous system (CNS) infection in an 11-month-old infant who sustained a dog bite to the calvarium. The prevalence of dog bites during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic had interestingly tripled in number after stay-at-home orders in 1 particular pediatric emergency department in Colorado. This observation paired with advances in microbiological identification like MALDI-TOF (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometer) may lead to the identification of future cases of uniquely canine pathogens that play a role in human infection.

Effect of sterilization on the canine vaginal microbiota: a pilot study

BackgroundSurgical sterilization is the most effective method of contraception for dogs. It also prevents pyometra and reduces the risk of mammary tumour development. However, this procedure also has negative effects, such as urinary incontinence. Steroid hormone deprivation following gonadectomy could also affect canine vaginal mucosa conditions and the microbial community colonizing the vaginal tract. This hypothesis was tested by comparing the vaginal cytology and microbial community of two groups of bitches, including 11 in anoestrus and 10 sterilized bitches (post-pubertal sterilization in the last 4 years). Bacteria were identified through metataxonomic analysis, amplifying the V3-V4 regions of 16S rRNA gene, and culturing methods.ResultsVaginal mucosa cytology was suggestive of dystrophic conditions in sterilized bitches, whereas a typical anoestrus pattern with parabasal and intermediate cells was appreciable in anoestrous animals. Metataxonomic analysis revealed large inter-individual variability. Salmonella, Mycoplasma and Staphylococcus were present in moderate quantities in almost all the samples in both groups. Mollicutes (class level) and Tenericutes (phylum level) were commonly present in moderate quantities in anoestrus samples, whereas these microbes were present at high levels in a single sample from the sterilized group.Based on culturing, a higher number of different species were isolated from the anoestrous bitches, and Mycoplasma canis was exclusively identified in an anoestrous bitch. Staphylococcus spp. was the most frequently isolated genus in both groups, followed by Streptococcus spp., and, among gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia spp. and Haemophilus spp. A comparison of the numbers of the most frequently isolated genera of bacteria from vaginal cultures of bitches revealed that Pasteurella and Proteus were the most frequently identified in sterilized animals based on metataxonomic analysis (p-value = 0.0497 and 0.0382, respectively), whereas Streptococcus was significantly and most frequently isolated from anoestrous bitches using culture methods (p value = 0.0436).ConclusionsIn this preliminary investigation, no global patterns of the vaginal bacteria community were noted that characterized the condition of the bitches; however, cytology suggested local modifications. Sterilization after puberty caused minimal alterations in the vaginal microbial community of bitches within 4 years after surgery.

Оптимизация адаптации к бесклеточным питательным средам и хранения микоплазм собак и кошек

Оптимизация адаптации к бесклеточным питательным средам и хранения микоплазм собак и кошек

A systematic review and meta-analyses of the association between 4 mycoplasma species and lower respiratory tract disease in dogs.

BackgroundThe pathogenic role of mycoplasmas in the lower respiratory tract (LRT) of dogs is debated, because mycoplasmas can be isolated from both healthy and sick dogs.ObjectivesTo critically assess available data from controlled observational studies on the role of 4 mycoplasma species in LRT disease of dogs.DesignSystematic review and meta‐analyses.MethodsSeven electronic databases were searched for relevant publications. Risk of bias was assessed by the Newcastle‐Ottawa Scale. Meta‐analyses, stratified by mycoplasmal species, were performed using a random effects Bayesian model with noninformative priors to estimate pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the association between Mycoplasma cynos, Mycoplasma canis, Mycoplasma spumans, and Mycoplasma edwardii and LRT disease in dogs.ResultsFive studies were included from 1201 references identified. All studies dealt with M. cynos, whereas 3 dealt with the other mycoplasma species. A significant association was found between M. cynos and LRT disease (Bayesian OR, 3.60; CI, 1.31‐10.29). Conversely, M. canis, M. spumans, and M. edwardii were not significantly associated with LRT signs (Bayesian OR, 1.06; CI, 0.10‐14.63; Bayesian OR, 3.40; CI, 0.16‐54.27; and Bayesian OR, 1.04; CI, 0.05‐23.54, respectively).Conclusions and Clinical ImportanceResults support a pathogenic role of M. cynos and a commensal role of M. canis and M. edwardii in LRT in dogs. Although the association was not significant based on the CI, the point estimate of the Bayesian OR was relatively high for M. spumans, making its role less clear. Mycoplasma cynos‐specific polymerase chain reaction should be considered on samples from dogs with LRT.

Improving CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing Efficiency by Fusion with Chromatin-Modulating Peptides.

Bacterial-derived CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases have become a common tool in genome engineering. However, the editing efficiency by even the best-crafted Cas9 nucleases varies considerably with different genomic sites, and efforts to explore the vast natural Cas9 diversity have often met with mixed or little success. Here, we show that modification of the widely used Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 by fusion with chromatin-modulating peptides (CMPs), derived from high mobility group proteins HMGN1 and HMGB1, histone H1, and chromatin remodeling complexes, improves its activity by up to several fold, particularly on refractory target sites. We further show that this CMP fusion strategy (termed CRISPR-chrom) is also effective in improving the activities of smaller Cas9 nucleases from Streptococcus pasteurianus and Campylobacter jejuni, as well as four newly characterized Cas9 orthologs from Bacillus smithii, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Mycoplasma canis, and Parasutterella excrementihominis. Our findings suggest that this CRISPR-chrom strategy can be used to improve established Cas9 nucleases and facilitate exploration of novel Cas9 orthologs for genome modification.

Genital mycoplasmas of healthy bitches.

Little is known about the presence of mycoplasmas in the genital tracts of domestic and stray bitches or in the vaginas of ovariohysterectomized (OHE) bitches. Moreover, to our knowledge, there has been no research to investigate the presence of canine vaginal mycoplasmas during the different stages of the reproductive cycle. We investigated the occurrence of mycoplasmas in the vaginas of healthy domestic and stray intact bitches, to correlate their presence with specific stages of the reproductive cycle, and to compare them with those in OHE bitches. We also investigated the presence of uterine mycoplasmas. Mycoplasmas were isolated from 41 of 122 vaginal swabs (34%) from domestic (27%) and stray (39%) bitches. Mycoplasma canis was the most commonly identified species ( n = 26; 63%), and was detected in both intact (60%) and OHE (73%) bitches. Mycoplasma isolates from the vaginas of healthy bitches did not vary during the various stages of the estrous cycle. Mycoplasmas were not detected in uterine samples.

Detection of specific bacterial agents by quantitative PCR assays in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of dogs with eosinophilic bronchopneumopathy vs. dogs with chronic bronchitis and healthy dogs

In humans, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Bordetella pertussis infections are suggested to trigger or exacerbate asthma. Whether Mycoplasma or Bordetella are associated with chronic inflammatory bronchial diseases in dogs has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to assess detection rates of Mycoplasma canis (M. canis), M. cynos and Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bb), in dogs with eosinophilic bronchopneumopathy (EBP) and chronic bronchitis (CB), compared with healthy dogs. Specific quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis for M. canis, M. cynos and Bb were retrospectively performed on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) collected from 24 dogs with EBP, 21 dogs with CB and 15 healthy dogs. Possible associations between qPCR results and age, BALF cytology or clinical severity scores (CSS) in dogs with EBP were investigated.There was no difference in M. canis, M. cynos and Bb detection rates in dogs with EBP (n=6, n=2 and n=6, respectively) and dogs with CB (n=2, n=2 and n=2, respectively) compared with control dogs (n=4, n=2 and n=2, respectively). In dogs with EBP, the proportion that were qPCR-positive for Bb was higher in dogs with higher CSS (P=0.014) and BALF from Bb-positive dogs had higher percentage of neutrophils (P<0.001). Among dogs that were qPCR-positive for Bb, moderate to high loads were only detected in dogs with EBP. M. canis and M. cynos detection was not associated with EBP or CB; higher Bb loads were only present in dogs with EBP and high CSS. A possible cause and effect relationship between Bb infection or load and EBP remains unclear and requires further investigation.

Canine tick-borne diseases in pet dogs from Romania

BackgroundTick-borne diseases are of substantial concern worldwide for animals as well as humans. Dogs have been a human companion for millennia, and their significant impact on human life renders disease in dogs to be of great concern. Tick-borne diseases in dogs represent a substantial diagnostic challenge for veterinarians in that clinical signs are often diffuse and overlapping. In addition, co-infections with two or more pathogens enhance this problem further. Molecular methods are useful to disentangle co-infections and to accurately describe prevalence and geographical distribution of tick-borne diseases. At this point, this information is lacking in many areas worldwide. Romania is one such area, where prevalence and distribution of several important pathogens need to be further investigated. To address this, we screened blood samples from 96 sick dogs with molecular methods for eight different pathogens including Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Hepatozoon spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., “Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis”, Mycoplasma spp., and Borrelia spp.ResultsAs many as 45% (43/96) of the dogs in the study were infected with protozoan parasites. Babesia canis was the most frequent of these (28 infected dogs), whereas Hepatozoon canis was detected in 15% (14/96) and Babesia gibsoni was found in a single sample. Bacterial infection with Mycoplasma spp. occurred in 18% (17/96) of the sampled dogs. Obtained bacterial sequences revealed the occurrence of two species: Mycoplasma canis and “Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum”. In several cases co-infection with protozoan parasites and Mycoplasma sp. were detected. All dogs were negative for Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., “Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis”, and for Borrelia spp.ConclusionsThe results from the present study reinforce the notion that Babesia canis is an important pathogen in the Romanian dog population. However, more surprisingly, another protozoan species, H. canis, seems to be infecting dogs to a larger extent than previously recognized in Romania. Well-known tick-borne bacterial disease agents such as Anaplasma spp. and Borrelia spp. were not detected. In contrast, less well-studied bacteria such as hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. were detected frequently. Moreover, co-infection might aggravate disease and complicate diagnosis and should be further studied in dogs.

Serological and molecular prevalence of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Korea

BackgroundPrevious surveys in dogs from Korea indicated that dogs are exposed to a variety of vector- borne pathogens, but perception for a nation-wide canine vector-borne disease (CVBD) occurrence has been missing. We report here results of both serological and molecular prevalence studies for major CVBDs of dogs from all over the South Korean Peninsula except for Jeju Island.ResultsSerological survey of 532 outdoor dogs revealed the highest prevalence for Dirofilaria immitis (25.2%), followed by Anaplasma phagocytophilum (15.6%), Ehrlichia canis (4.7%) whereas Borrelia burgdorferi showed the lowest prevalence (1.1%). The number of serologically positive dogs for any of the four pathogens was 216 (40.6%). Concurrent real-time PCR assay of 440 dogs in the study indicated that DNA of “Candidatus M. haematoparvum”, Mycoplasma haemocanis, Babesia gibsoni, A. phagocytophilum, and Hepatozoon canis was identified in 190 (43.2%), 168 (38.2%), 23 (5.2%), 10 (2.3%) and 1 (0.2%) dogs, respectively. DNA of Bartonella spp., Ehrlichia spp., Leishmania spp., Rickettsia spp. and Neorickettsia risticii was not identified. Analysis of questionnaires collected from owners of 440 dogs showed that the number of dogs with heartworm preventive medication was 348 (79.1%) among which dogs still positive to D. immitis infection were 60 (17.2%), probably due to the mean months of heartworm preventive medication being only 6.5. The high prevalence rates of both “Ca. M. haematoparvum” and Mycoplasma haemocanis in dogs from Korea indicate that these organisms may be transmitted by vectors other than Rhipicephalus sanguineus because this tick species has rarely been found in Korea. This is the first nationwide survey for canine haemotropic mycoplasma infections in Korea.ConclusionsThis study showed that the risk of exposure to major vector-borne diseases in dogs is quite high throughout all areas of South Korean Peninsula. Since achieving full elimination of many pathogens causing CVBDs from infected animals is often impossible even when they are clinically cured, dogs once exposed to CVBDs can remain as lifetime reservoirs of disease for both other animals and humans in the close vicinity, and should therefore be treated with preventative medications to minimise the risk of pathogen transmission by the competent vectors.

Molecular surveillance of traditional and emerging pathogens associated with canine infectious respiratory disease

A molecular survey for traditional and emerging pathogens associated with canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD) was conducted in Italy between 2011 and 2013 on a total of 138 dogs, including 78 early acute clinically ill CIRD animals, 22 non-clinical but exposed to clinically ill CIRD dogs and 38 CIRD convalescent dogs. The results showed that canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV) was the most commonly detected CIRD pathogen, followed by canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV), Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycoplasma cynos, Mycoplasma canis and canine pneumovirus (CnPnV). Some classical CIRD agents, such as canine adenoviruses, canine distemper virus and canid herpesvirus 1, were not detected at all, as were not other emerging respiratory viruses (canine influenza virus, canine hepacivirus) and bacteria (Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus). Most severe forms of respiratory disease were observed in the presence of CPIV, CRCoV and M. cynos alone or in combination with other pathogens, whereas single CnPnV or M. canis infections were detected in dogs with no or very mild respiratory signs. Interestingly, only the association of M. cynos (alone or in combination with either CRCoV or M. canis) with severe clinical forms was statistically significant. The study, while confirming CPIV as the main responsible for CIRD occurrence, highlights the increasing role of recently discovered viruses, such as CRCoV and CnPnV, for which effective vaccines are not available in the market.