Canadian School System Research Articles

Development of residential schools for indigenous minorities in Canada – selected problems

The article deals with the issue of the relation between education and the processes of assimilation and discrimination of indigenous minorities (Indians and Inuit) in Canada. Particular emphasis was placed on reconstructing educational practices and the educational policy that is implemented toward indigenous minorities within Canadian school system (especially destruction of their ethnic identity in residential schools). An attempt was made at examining the relationship between schooling, religion, socialization, forced Christianization, language policy, and the development of aboriginal minorities in Canada.

Perspectives from Students: How to Tame the Chaos and Harness the Power of Technology for Learning

Technology continues to form an important part of the educational landscape, although the value of portable devices as learning tools is still being explored and debated. In light of the technology-based teaching methods suddenly brought into effect in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the deliberate use of technology for learning is increasingly significant. The purpose of this article is to highlight student perspectives of learning with portable devices to inform the use of portable technology in the Canadian school system going forward. To gather student perceptions, the research team surveyed 704 students in grades 6 to 9 about their use of iPads in the classroom during a 1:1 technology initiative. While students were enthusiastic about the presence of portable technology, they also shared mixed feelings about the use of such technology as a learning tool. Key themes fell into three categories—engagement, inclusivity, and learning—as students shared their insight into the academic, social, and physical barriers that exist as a result of the technology. In the discussion, we identify lessons learned, especially in the area of self-regulation, and make recommendations on how to harness the power of this multi-faceted learning tool and minimize the chaos it can create when not utilized deliberately and carefully.

Exploring initial school integration among Syrian refugee children

AbstractThis paper explores the initial integration experiences of Syrian refugee children in schools in Canada. We conducted two focus groups with twelve Syrian refugee parents and three focus groups with eighteen children. Our research shows that Syrian refugee children experienced emotional barriers while struggling with their identity as Syrian “refugees.” Their low English proficiency, English only practice in classrooms and teachers’ low expectations further exacerbated the barriers to children's school integration. Syrian refugee children not only found it difficult to make friends with local students but were also subjected to constant bullying and racism that affected their sense of belonging and connection. Our research has both local and global implications, given a global increase in refugee student population. This paper makes an important contribution to the student voice theory by integrating the voices and concerns of Syrian refugee children trying to integrate into the Canadian school system.

Impact of a Combined Philosophy and Mindfulness Intervention on Positive and Negative Indicators of Mental Health Among Pre-kindergarten Children: Results From a Pilot and Feasibility Study.

Background: Fostering greater resiliency to stress, optimal psychosocial development and promoting better mental health and well-being in youth is an important goal of the Canadian and American elementary school systems (1, 2). Recent research on mindfulness and philosophy for children (P4C) has yielded promising results regarding innovative interventions that may be implemented in elementary school settings to foster greater child resiliency and well-being (3–5).Goal: The goal of this feasibility study was to pilot a new intervention, which combines mindfulness meditation and P4C activities, with the goal of improving mental health in pre-kindergarten children, assessed with positive (i.e., social skills and adaptability) and negative (i.e., internalized symptoms, comprises depression, anxiety, inattention; and hyperactivity) indicators.Methods: A randomized cluster trial with a wait-list control group was employed to evaluate the impact of the combined MBI and P4C intervention on child mental health. Two classrooms of pre-kindergarten children (N = 38, mean age = 4.6 years old) took part in this study and were randomly allocated to the experimental or wait-list control conditions. Teachers completed pre- and post-intervention questionnaires.Results: ANCOVAs did not reveal a significant effect of condition on internalized symptoms, controlling for baseline levels. Sensitivity analyses indicated that for the whole sample, internalized symptom scores were statistically significantly lower at post-intervention, when compared to pre-intervention scores. No impact of group on levels of hyperactivity was found, however, sensitivity analyses indicated that for both the experimental and control groups, hyperactivity scores were statistically significantly lower at post-intervention, when compared to pre-intervention scores. Finally, no impact of group on levels of social skills and adaptability were found. Sensitivity analyses conducted using paired t-tests did not indicate statistically significant pre-to-post changes in scores for both variables.Conclusion: These preliminary results suggest that mindfulness and philosophy for children may not be the most effective intervention to foster short-term resiliency, well-being and better mental health in children. Yet, group differences were often small and past research suggested the effectiveness of this type of intervention. Further research considering the impact of moderators such as age or baseline levels of psychopathology, using longer time frames and comparing the effectiveness of this combined intervention with other types of school-based interventions with similar aims (such as, e.g., P4C or MBI alone) is warranted, to evaluate if mindfulness and P4C interventions have an added value compared to other types of interventions implemented in school settings.

Inclusion and equity in education: Current policy reform in Nova Scotia, Canada.

This article aims to explore the context of inclusive education policy in Canada, and to highlight the particular case of inclusive education policy reform in the province of Nova Scotia. As with most other provinces and territories, inclusive education policy in Nova Scotia has broadened to include a lens of equity, with a focus on not only students with special education needs, but all students – particularly those most often marginalized by and within Canadian school systems. The article reflects on the first phase of the developmental evaluation process which took place prior to full implementation of the policy. Four interconnected key themes emerge: 1) the shifting roles and identities for educators and specialized staff; 2) the changing roles of classroom teachers; 3) the importance of support to ensure effective universal and differentiated classroom practices; and 4) the professional learning of school staff. Although situated within the Nova Scotian and the national Canadian context, the discussion and implications can readily be applied to international systems engaged in developing and implementing broad inclusive education policy.

Treatment Integrity and Social Validity of the FRIENDS for Life Programme in a Northeastern Canadian School System

AbstractThe FRIENDS for Life (FFL) programme, a school-based anxiety prevention programme, targets anxiety reduction and resiliency development in elementary school-aged children (Barrett, Sonderegger & Xenos, 2003). In the context of equivocal effectiveness findings regarding FFL in Canadian schools, the present study assessed pre–post changes in anxiety, self-esteem, and prosocial behaviour in a school system in Northeastern Canada. To yield further insight to the potential sources of equivocal FFL effectiveness findings, we also evaluated FFL treatment integrity (TI) and social validity (SV). Few studies have assessed FFL TI at the level of identifying which programme sessions, or within-session content, have or have not been adhered to (Higgins & O'Sullivan S, 2015). Similarly, few studies have provided detailed programme SV data or perceived programme benefits by children and parents. TI and SV can provide programme data beyond anxiety reduction, which is key in prevention programming research, as pre–post changes are challenging to detect in ‘healthy’ samples (Durlak & Wells, 1997). Treatment outcome, TI, and SV data were collected from classrooms across 10 elementary schools administering FFL. The sample included 210 child and 108 parent participants; post-testing occurred 1 week following FFL programme completion. Findings indicated significant decreases from pre- to post-test in child-reported anxiety and self-esteem but no changes in prosocial behaviours. Findings suggest that low TI ratings may have impacted anxiety, self-esteem, and prosocial behaviour results, and that child-reported SV may be more related to programme outcomes than parent-reported SV. Implications for FFL programme developers and future FFL evaluation studies are discussed.

What Do Indigenous Education Policy Frameworks Reveal about Commitments to Reconciliation in Canadian School Systems?

The national Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada has challenged governments and school boards across Canada to acknowledge and address the damaging legacies of residential schooling while ensuring that all students gain an adequate understanding of relations between Indigenous Peoples and non-Indigenous peoples. This article explores the dynamics and prospects for effective change associated with reforms in elementary and secondary education systems since the release of the Commission’s Calls to Action, focusing on the policy frameworks employed by provincial and territorial governments to guide these actions. The analysis examines critically the overt and hidden messages conveyed through discourses within policy documents and statements. The key questions we address include: What do current education policy frameworks and actions regarding Indigenous Peoples reveal about government approaches to education and settler–Indigenous relationships in Canada? To what extent is effective reconciliation possible, and how can it be accomplished in the context of institutional structures and discourses within a White settler colonial society? The findings reveal that substantial movement towards greater acknowledgement of Indigenous knowledge systems and incorporation of Indigenous content continues to be subordinated to or embedded within Western assumptions, norms, and standards.

Le Plan d’Intervention au Canada et en Europe : Une Analyse Comparative Entre Cinq Systèmes Scolaires

In North America, as well as in Europe, most countries have included in their educational policies the possibility of an individualized educational project for students with special needs during their compulsory schooling. The tool used for this is mainly an individualized education plan (IEP) set up for students experiencing academic or behavioural difficulties at school. The purpose of this article is to take a comparative look at individualized education plans from five school systems: Quebec, Ontario, France, Belgium (Wallonia), and Switzerland (Ticino canton). A comparative analysis was conducted on the IEP frameworks from these school systems. This comparative analysis sheds light on the terminology, definitions, characteristics, and components of IEPs used in five European and Canadian school systems for students with difficulties. The results show that the terminology used is specific to each school system, but the importance of planning, integration, collaboration, coordination, teaching interventions/arrangements is highlighted in all these definitions. The analysis reveals differences in the components of the IEPs among the five school systems studied. However, IEP patterns revolve around a common core of 11 components.

“I Belong to Nowhere”: Syrian Refugee Children’s Perspectives on School Integration

Since 2011, the armed conflict that began in the Syrian Arab Republic has displaced an estimated 12 million Syrians, forcing them to seek refuge in various countries around the world. Over half of those uprooted are children. Education is key to integration of refugee children and is considered critical in bringing back a sense of normalcy, routine as well as emotional and social well-being in the lives of refugee children. In Canada, integration of Syrian refugee children in the public school system has, therefore, been identified as one of the vital aspects of their settlement needs. This article examines the challenges experienced by newly arrived Syrian refugee children as they struggle to integrate to the Canadian school system. We have conducted five focus groups with twelve Syrian refugee parents and eighteen Syrian refugee children between the age group of 10-14. Our research shows that Syrian refugee children not only find it difficult to make friends with local students but are also subjected to constant bullying and racism that affect their sense of belonging and connection. Making the views of these students explicit, we hope to provide a starting point for not only understanding their experiences in more detail, but also for developing educational strategies, resources and policies that might best meet the needs of these students and future refugee children and youth.

A Question of Aims and Assumptions in Canadian Education

This article deals with the OECD Report of 1976 on Canadian education. It reviews issues concerned with the planning, aims, and assumptions of Canadian education. The article focuses on a critique, occurring in Appendix B of the OECD Report, that attacks the most fundamental assumptions of the Canadian public school system. The criticism charges that the Canadian school system is organized along the lines of an old-fashioned industrial enterprise with children treated as raw materials that are processed through grade 12 where the best go on for further academic processing in universities. The article concurs with the view of the OECD Report.

Story as a Means of Engaging Public Educators and Indigenous Students

Two concerns in public Indigenous education are the education of teachers and the engagement of students. In this study, drawing on stories and multiple perspectives is an approach presented to address both concerns. In open-ended interviews with seven Indigenous educators and leaders in urban public school boards, story was highlighted as a central component of the success of Indigenous students. Participants believed that educators’ understanding and teaching practice is enriched by seeking out stories and multiple perspectives—those of Indigenous students and their families and communities in particular. They also believed that when these stories are valued in school, students’ sense of belonging and engagement increase. This paper explores various angles on drawing on stories in public schools as modes of engagement and learning for both educators and students. These angles address the experiences that students, teachers, and families bring to schools and the stories tied to local communities and embedded in Canadian school systems.

1. PRE‐SERVICE TEACHERS AND THE MEANING OF INCLUSION

The number of students with special education needs in the Canadian school system is estimated to range from 9 to 15% (Timmons, 2006). Within Canada, inclusive education means that students who are diverse learners attend their neighbourhood school with their same age peers where they are accepted, valued and made to feel they belong in regular classrooms and schools (Specht and Young, 2010). Research attests to the link among teachers’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about learning and inclusive education and their classroom practice (Jordan, Schwartz and McGhie-Richmond, 2009). Teachers are more willing to adopt inclusive teaching practices, those which promote greater equity in classrooms of diverse learners, when they are comfortable with the use of appropriate pedagogy and when they believe that all students can learn and should be included in heterogeneous classrooms. The challenge is to equip and empower teachers with the competence and confidence required to teach students in inclusive classrooms. University pre-service teacher education programmes are designed to begin to equip prospective teachers with these experiences (Ashman, 2010). Within the faculties of education that participated in this research study, pre-service teachers are required to undertake a course in special or inclusive education as part of their teacher education programme. This national study provided a cross-Canada snapshot of the beliefs about inclusion in pre-service teacher education programmes for the purpose of understanding whether or not our teacher education programmes are graduating teachers who believe that they possess the skills, knowledge and beliefs necessary to be successful in diverse and inclusive classrooms. The participants were 1490 pre-service teachers (385 Men; 11105 Women) from 11 Faculties of Education (Mage=25.9 years; SD=5.4). We report on their response to the question ‘what does inclusion mean to you’? This question was designed to be broad in order to elicit participants’ understanding of inclusion and to determine key ideas participants may be deriving from their teacher education programmes. A content analysis approach was employed. This involved coding statements based on key concepts, clustering the concepts into themes and revisiting the themes to further refine them (Fiese and Bickham, 1998). The first major theme reflected pre-service teacher beliefs and attitudes towards inclusion. They indicated that inclusion was a ‘right’ for all students and that students should have the opportunity to be successful. They also expressed doubt in their own ability, in the concept of inclusion, and whether or not all students are capable of being included. The second major theme concerned creating an environment that is conducive to and supportive of inclusion. The subthemes reflected the need to create a welcoming and positive space, the responsibility of the teacher to instruct in ways that recognise and support students and the recognition that others are involved in providing support for students. Instructional approaches and strategies that have developed from understanding and addressing the needs of students with special education needs (i.e., Universal Design for Learning, Differentiated Instruction, assistive and instructional technology and collaborative practice) serve all students. Incorporating these approaches and strategies in an intentional, holistic manner into all curricular coursework in pre-service teacher education programmes may further support pre-service teachers’ understanding that inclusion is about all students. Increasing the opportunities that pre-service teachers have to apply these teaching approaches may improve their skills and confidence and optimally prepare them for inclusive classrooms and counter the perception and belief that inclusion cannot be accomplished or that it is a passing educational fad. The author reports no conflict of interest.

A Canadian Investigation of the Psychometric Properties of the Student Motivation and Learning Strategies Inventory

The psychometric properties of the Student Motivation and Learning Strategies Inventory (SMALSI) were examined using a sample of 404 Grade 6 students from an urban Canadian school system. Students completed the SMALSI and school factors included final school grades, attendance records, and language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies results from Provincial Achievement Tests (PATs). Confirmatory factor analysis of SMALSI demonstrated less than adequate fit for each individual SMALSI factor though with some covariance of similar items, the model fit approached acceptable limits for most factors. Results generally confirmed that the SMALSI subscales were significantly related to all of the achievement variables including PAT results and final school grades. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that writing and research skills, test-taking skills, low motivation, and test anxiety all contributed to the prediction of PAT results. Test anxiety was a significant predictor of achievement across all subject areas. Canadian Grade 6 students demonstrated lower motivation, less test anxiety, and fewer attention problems but were otherwise comparable with the U.S. sample. Results provide convergent evidence supporting the psychometric properties of the SMALSI with a Canadian sample; however, there is some room to improve the overall model fit in subsequent revisions of this measure.

Children with School Problems: A Physician’s Manual

Drs Andrews and Mahoney have created an affordable, practical resource, which is essential reading for consulting paediatricians and child psychiatrists in academic or hospital centres who perform developmental assessments. It will also be a welcome resource for primary care clinicians (including community office-based paediatricians, family physicians and nurse practitioners) who provide comprehensive care to families with school-aged children. The authors are expert developmental paediatricians from across Canada who are completely familiar with the Canadian medical system and can point the reader to the best options for providing advice to parents who have children with school issues. The Children with School Problems manual is very easy to read, with chapters organized in a logical fashion that are divided into five main sections (Foundations, Diagnostics, Management, Trajectories, Resources). There is a wealth of information including a glossary of medical terms and conditions. A full section of tables of risk factors and clinical signs includes details regarding physical examination findings. Updated information regarding medical drug treatment for conditions that can impact school performance such as ADHD is included. A detailed list of Canadian norms and options for complementary and alternative therapies will be very useful for families who request this information. A detailed collection of clinical tools required for clinical assessments is included in this excellent resource. The index is comprehensive and provides a quick way to find details that a clinician requires during a busy day in the office. The editors and authors of this revised second edition manual have updated the content providing excellent information about child developmental trajectories and risk factors that can interfere with school performance. Detailed information about the impact of social determinants of health, alcohol, nicotine, other substances and poor nutrition are provided. Detailed description of school staff and procedures will ensure that the final assessment and evidence-based recommendations will be appropriate for the Canadian school system. The clinical case studies are very helpful in illustrating how to suggest recommendations for the school administrative team and teachers to follow. A Resource Worksheet is provided for physicians who work with students with learning problems to enable collection of essential information in a practical summary format. The Editors and Authors have updated the original 1998 version of the manual and added new research evidence about treatment options. On a personal note, the first edition of this manual assisted me when my own child experienced serious school problems, so I can personally endorse this excellent resource manual as a parent and as a family physician with an interest in healthy child development.

Exploring Linguistic, Cultural, and Religious Diversity in Canadian Schools: Pre-Service Teachers’ Learning from Immigrant Parents

The knowledge immigrant parents hold about their children is often unrecognized by Canadian educational systems. Parent knowledge has vital implications for Canadian school systems and for teacher preparation. Based on interviews of parents from 15 countries, this study presented three types of parent knowledge: First language, cultural and religious knowledge. Then, parent knowledge was shared with a group of pre-service teachers. Results reveal some pre-service teachers encouraged the use of students’ first language in their practicum whereas others internalized their monolingual ideology despite multilingual realities. They recognized cultural misunderstanding between immigrant parents and Canadian teachers and systemic racism, and questioned the feasibility of accommodating everyone’s religious needs. The study calls for the reconstruction of difference and the inclusion of epistemological pluralism, particularly immigrant parent knowledge, within teacher education. The study also suggests that it is important to help pre-service teachers shift their representation of multilingualism from being a problem to a resource, challenge their Eurocentric perspectives, understand immigrant students’ cultural backgrounds, and address religious-based exemptions and accommodation.

A new paradigm for the learning of a second or foreign language: the neurolinguistic approach

This article considers the contribution of research in neuroscience to resolving the question of how to develop communication skills in a second language in an institutional setting. The purpose of the article is to demonstrate how the findings of cognitive neuroscience can assist educators to understand the complexity of learning and, as a result, to develop more effective instructional practices. The article begins with a brief description of the two options for the learning of French as a second language currently offered in the Canadian school system and the deficiencies inherent in these programs for a country attempting to foster English-French bilingualism in its anglophone citizens. Secondly, the paradigm underlying the core French option, based on cognitive psychology, is examined and its limitations are discussed. The remainder of the article presents the Neurolinguistic Approach (NLA) as developed by the authors, explaining its bases in cognitive neuroscience, the ensuing five major principles of the approach, with the pedagogical consequences that each one entails. Reference is then made to two classroom applications of the NLA: intensive French implemented widely in Canada and another adaptation implanted in China. After comparing the approach briefly with French immersion, limitations of the NLA are presented, and the article concludes with some directions for future research. The positive results of the practical applications of the NLA indicate the important contribution research in cognitive neuroscience can make to improving learning in a classroom situation.

Canadian women and the (re)production of women in Afghanistan

Canadian women have been at the forefront of the international movement for women's rights in Afghanistan since the rise of the Taliban in the late 1990s. Focusing on the prominent group Canadian Women for Women in Afghanistan (CW4WAfghan), this paper looks at the role its advocacy assumes in the context of the ‘War on Terror’. In Canada, as in the United States, government agencies have justified the military invasion of Afghanistan by revitalizing the oppressed Muslim woman as a medium through which narratives of East versus West are performed. While CW4WAfghan attempts to challenge dominant narratives of Afghan women, it ultimately reinforces the Orientalist logic on which the War on Terror operates. Drawing on Chandra Talpade Mohanty's study of feminist pedagogy, this paper explores the implications of CW4WAfghan's discourse and its dissemination through the Canadian school system. It highlights how CW4WAfghan's portrayal of Canadian values and responsibilities is at odds with feminist efforts to reconceptualize the gendered nature of war and national identity.

Fix the Flawed Funding Formula!

SPRING is season for announcing funding to schools in Canadian provinces. Some provinces, such as Manitoba, announce funding early in calendar year for following school year, but in most provinces funding for schools is announced following release of provincial budget. This, in turn, usually follows release of federal budget, which occurred in Canada this year late in February, just as I was writing this column. By time you read this in May, just about all provinces will have announced their 2008-09 school funding. Schools in Canada today are funded at reasonable, though not extravagant, levels. However, level does vary significantly from one province to another. Canada now spends about $50 billion per year on its schools, which is about $10,000 per student per year or about 3.5% of our gross domestic product. On most international measures, our spending is about at middle among OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. Given Canadian students' excellent results on international tests, Canadian school system provides good value for money. Almost all money for Canadian public schools comes from provincial governments. In only two provinces, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, is a significant share of school funding still derived from property taxes levied by local school boards, though substantial local funding was norm in Canada until 1980s and 1990s. Because school districts get their money from provincial governments, not only does total amount of money matter, but so does formula through which it is allocated. Provincial governments give a great deal of attention to their annual decisions on education funding. After all, this is one of biggest single items in their budgets and also one that gets a lot of public attention because many people are connected with schools in one way or another--as students, parents, extended family, or staff. Making funding decisions and announcements were among most important things I did as a senior official in two Canadian governments. Yet no matter what announcement was, dominant reaction from education sector always seemed to be disappointment. And same result holds in every other province today. When it comes to funding schools, it's hard to please anyone, let alone everyone. In both provinces where I worked in government, Manitoba and Ontario, education sector argued that funding formula used by province was problem and had to be changed. In making this claim education groups were aided and abetted by media, who liked stories on conflict over funding and whose understanding of real mechanics of school funding tended to be quite limited. In Manitoba, provincial funding formula was usually described by a major newspaper as the complex and convoluted funding formula, as if that were its official name. I could imagine minister intoning, Today I am pleased to announce our Complex and Convoluted Funding known as CCFF for short. In Ontario in last two years, media have often referred to provincial funding formula as Flawed Funding Formula, based on constant repetition of this assertion by various parties in education system. In reality there are several reasons why no funding formula and no funding announcement will ever satisfy education sector. And there are some big reasons why this endless dispute over money is a problem for whole education sector. Let's start with inherent inadequacy of any school funding scheme. Schools as human service organizations will never have enough money to do everything they would like to do for their students. No matter how much is currently being done, it's easy to see how a new program, or some more staff, or better facilities would help even more. No matter how much is spent on schools--and whether purely for reasons of selfinterest or not-- people in education will want and see need for more. …

Popular Darwinism and Geography Textbooks in Canada, 1850-1920

Influenced by Darwin's ideas, geographers in the late nineteenth century attempted to understand how the earth affected man. Disseminating their ideas through textbooks, geographers established what physical and climatic features were favourable for advancement and also defined what constituted progress or success. A dense population, for instance, was desirable, a sign the race was succeeding. This paper analyzes pre-and post-Darwinian geography textbooks used in the Canadian school system, indicating that they helped to shape culture at the turn of the century. Geography textbooks in Canadian schools were an important mechanism for the transmission of popular conceptions of Darwinian thought.

Educator Preparedness to Teach Health Education in British Columbia

Background: To date, few studies have been conducted to investigate the preparedness of health educators in Canadian school systems. Purpose: This study assessed practicing and preservice teachers' self-perceptions of preparedness to teach health education in British Columbia K-12 classrooms. It also investigated factors related to their preparedness. Methods: In 2006, 166 practicing teachers and 78 preservice teachers participated in a self-designed questionnaire. Results: Significant positive relationships were found between preservice teachers' knowledge, skill, preparedness, beliefs toward health education, and satisfaction with the provincial health curricula in assisting them to teach health education. Practicing teachers with more experiences in health education reported higher levels of knowledge, skill, and preparedness, as well as more positive beliefs toward health education, but their satisfaction with the curriculum was negatively associated with those variables. They also reported higher levels of skill and satisfaction and more positive beliefs than the preservice group. Discussion: In light of these results, further explorations are needed to understand current contexts within Canadian school health education. Translation to Health Education Practice: Findings support the need for training and implementation of health-related programs into the education system, particularly the deliberation on how to transform curricula into a more supportive vehicle for health education programming.