Canadian Police Officers Research Articles

Our State / Ourselves: Discourses on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in Police Peacekeeping

ABSTRACT This paper presents findings from interview research with Canadian police officers deployed to the UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti between 2004 and 2017. Focusing on the problem of sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA), we present three discourses that emerge from this research and their reasoning about the problem of SEA. These discourses suggest that (1) other contributing countries are responsible for the problem of SEA; (2) the UN fails to sanction SEA in practice, while Canada does sanction SEA; and (3) Haitians and Haitian culture undermines efforts to reduce SEA. Using tools of critical discourse analysis, we show how discourses on SEA reinforce a mentality of self-exemption that treats sexual misconduct as a problem in which Canada and Canadians are largely innocent, while the UN, other contributing countries, and Haitians themselves, bear much more fault. We argue that these discourses reproduce a narrative of innocence and contribute to Canada’s national mythology as a do-gooder nation that is largely exempt from perpetrating SEA, despite evidence to the contrary.

A pilot study on the efficacy of an online mindfulness intervention for Canadian police officers

A pilot study on the efficacy of an online mindfulness intervention for Canadian police officers

‘Me, us, and Them’: Policing and the Dynamics of Identity Work

The study of identity work has grown exponentially in the past decade; however, little research has been undertaken in challenging occupational contexts, such as policing. Existing studies have focused on tensions between personal and work identities, such as being a woman in a male-dominated workplace, or how officers have responded to threats to their occupational identities. Using data collected from interviews with 32 Canadian police officers, this study examines the circumstances that compel officers to engage in identity work and the processes undertaken to alleviate these identity conflicts or threats. The findings illustrate that police officer identity work is prompted by four primary triggers, defined as: (1) identity strain; (2) work-identity stigma; (3) identity maturation; and (4) organizational indifference. The findings also suggest that these triggers are influenced by police culture and the related socialization processes that continue to emphasize traditional masculine attributes (e.g., aggression, physical strength and toughness).

Reducing racial bias and lethal force among Canadian police officers: Concrete recommendations for change.

Reducing racial bias and lethal force among Canadian police officers: Concrete recommendations for change.

Racial bias and lethal force errors among Canadian police officers.

Racial bias and lethal force errors among Canadian police officers.

Mindful of authority: A snapshot of the meditation and contemplative practices of some Canadian Commissioned Police Officers

Research into the benefits of mindfulness training, meditation, and other contemplative practices for the workplace has grown dramatically. Within the context of Canadian policing, the wellness benefits of these mental practices are beginning to be understood. However, little is known about Canadian police officers’ current use of these practices. This information is important for future research exploring the effects of these practices over time, and for police agencies considering introducing mindfulness or meditation training programs into their organizations. This article shares initial findings from a broader, yet unpublished, qualitative study of a cohort of Commissioned Officers from a large Canadian police service who self-identified as having regular meditation practices. Invitations to participate in a study exploring the perceived influence of meditation on leadership were e-mailed to all 605 Commissioned Officers. Of the 13 individuals who responded, 11 met the study criteria. Qualitative content analysis of the data yielded the following results: Commissioned Officers in a wide variety of roles in this police service are engaged in a broad spectrum of contemplative practices; each participant engaged in multiple practices; and the most common reason for beginning to practice meditation was to assist in recovery from a psychological or physical injury. These findings suggest that police organizations introduce a variety of mental training practices early in officers’ service to ensure their career is more positive, resilient, and rewarding.

Mindfulness facets and self-compassion as moderators of the relationship between occupational stressors and mental health symptoms in Canadian police officers.

Mindfulness facets and self-compassion as moderators of the relationship between occupational stressors and mental health symptoms in Canadian police officers.

‘Me’ versus ‘We’: exploring the personal and professional identity-threatening experiences of police officers and the factors that contribute to them

ABSTRACT From semi-structured interviews with 42 Canadian police officers, the study suggests that the occupational context created both personal and professional identity threats are largely based on the degree to which officers aligned with the image of the ideal worker as physically strong, aggressive and committed to the job. Because perceived nonconforming members also violated gendered expectations for behavior, they not only experienced threats to their personal identities, but also were potentially subjected to bullying, harassment, and isolation. Socialization processes and occupational stigma were identified as two key factors that intensified the occupational identity and the ‘us’ and ‘them’ divide leading to more vigorous defenses against group identity threats. Despite the salience of these contextual factors, not all officers experienced the identity threats in the same way, highlighting changing views on what it means to be an ‘ideal’ police officer as well as opportunities for reform.

Promoting Voice in Policing: The Role of Imagination, Centralization, and Psychological Safety

This article aims to trace the antecedents of promotive and prohibitive voicing in the police workforce. We draw from trait activation theory to develop a model that includes individual and organizational factors that can create or hinder the social support necessary for police officers to adopt voice behavior. Specifically, we argue feelings of psychological safety emerge and encourage voicing from imaginative individuals depending on the centralization dynamics in which they operate. We used time-lagged, survey-based data from 326 Canadian police officers to test our theory. We found that imaginative officers operating in a decentralized context exercise more voicing thanks to heightened feelings of psychological safety. However, imagination can backfire in a context of centralization because officers feel less psychologically safe and refrain from speaking out. Our study helps shed light on which officers can become inclined to engage in voice behavior and under what circumstances, which offers significant contributions to both theory and practice.

Policemen, COVID-19, and police culture: navigating the pandemic with colleagues, the public, and family

ABSTRACT Scholars have long identified the culture of policing as resisting change and impeding reform (Campeau, 2019. Institutional myths and generational boundaries: cultural inertia in the police organisation. Policing and society, 29 (1), 69–84. doi:10.1080/10439463.2017.1371718; Chan, 1996. Changing police culture. British journal of criminology, 36 (1), 109–134. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014061), and the advent of COVID-19 has been optimal for studying this culture. Early research on the pandemic identified some temporary cultural shifts within policing or at least the potential for these (e.g. Alcadipani, 2020. Pandemic and macho organizations: wake-up call or business as usual? Gender, work and organization, 27 (5), 734–746). Our research analyzes data from 18 qualitative interviews with Canadian police officers who identified as men about their experiences at work and home, approximately five months into the pandemic. Drawing on Campeau's (2015. “Police culture” at work: making sense of police oversight. British journal of criminology, 55, 669–687. doi:10.1093/bjc/azu093) theorising of police culture as a resource, we illustrate how officers drew on the macho police culture ‘toolkit’ differently depending on the social context. With colleagues, they normalised risks posed by the pandemic; when interacting with the public, they highlighted the risks around policing during the pandemic; and with family, officers both downplayed risks at work to reassure their children of their safety and highlighted pandemic-related risks at home with their families. Our research points to the importance of recognising that culture is not homogenous; rather it is taken up differently depending on the organisation, the social context, and the moment in time.

The Moral Injury of Ineffective Police Leadership: A Perspective.

Research suggests that Canadian police officers are exposed to trauma at a greater frequency than the general population. This, combined with other operational stressors, such as risk of physical injury, high consequence of error, and strained resources, can leave officers less resilient to organizational stressors. In my experience, a significant and impactful organizational stressor is ineffective leadership, which include leaders who are non-supportive, inconsistent, egocentric, and morally ambiguous. Ineffective leadership in the context of paramilitary police culture has been recognized as psychologically distressing. Further, moral injury may result when leadership fails to meet officers’ needs, expectations, and values. Ineffective leadership and resulting moral injuries are an understudied area in the literature. This review will help provide a comprehensive context of policing and the impact of ineffective leadership on police mental health.

The Link Between Social Support and Psychological Vulnerability Among Canadian Police Officers

The Link Between Social Support and Psychological Vulnerability Among Canadian Police Officers

‘Real men’ doing dirty work: implications for change

ABSTRACT Police organisations in Canada and other parts of the world, have recently undertaken efforts to address misconduct arising from high-profile reports of internal discrimination and harassment and/or instances of excessive use of force. However, these actions tend to be pursued through traditional approaches without fully understanding the contextual factors that contribute to these harmful behaviours. Through a sequential, qualitative mixed-methods study involving Canadian police officers, this paper highlights how symbolic meanings attached to police work contribute to perceptions that the work is more suitable for some individuals than others. The findings also illustrate how officers respond to identity threats from stigmatised officers or from external sources. Finally, the findings suggest that the prototypical image of a police officer may be changing with recent criticisms of the police presented as possibilities for change.

Stress and the interpretation of ambiguous faces in police officers

ABSTRACT Fast and accurate decision-making are central in police officers’ duties. The processing of information relevant to inform decisions can be biased by the state of mind of officers, notably in the presence of stressful conditions. We sought to examine the link between different sources of stress and the presence of an interpretation bias in a task presenting ambiguous faces. A sample of 234 Canadian police officers took part in an online study measuring the number of stressful life events and the level of occupational stress. Participants were assigned to a stress-induced group or a control group. The stress induction was a challenging arithmetic task and the control task was a non-challenging arithmetic task. Participants indicated if the facial expression of 60 ambiguous faces was ‘negative’ or ‘positive’. The dependent measure was the mean number of positive interpretations. Perceived stress level, measured on a visual analogue scale, collected throughout the task indicated that the induction was successful. We found no difference in interpretations resulting from the stress induction. We did however find a significant negative correlation between the perceived stress measures and the interpretation of the faces; higher levels of perceived stress were associated with less positive interpretations. The number of stressful life events and occupational stress level were not associated with face interpretation. Paperwork and fatigue were reported as the most stressful aspects of the job by the officers, consistent with what has been found in studies conducted with police services worldwide. This study also highlights the relevance of perceived stress in police officers.

Perceived organizational support and its interaction with voice on police officers' organizational cynicism, stress and emotional exhaustion

PurposeAmong a sample of 281 active-duty Canadian police officers, the current study investigated whether perceived organizational support (POS) would predict officers' organizational cynicism, stress and emotional exhaustion three months later. The moderating influence of officer voice on these relationships was also examined.Design/methodology/approachIn collaboration with a large policing organization, online surveys collecting quantitative data and soliciting open-ended comments were administered to officers, with a three-month lag separating survey administrations.FindingsThe results reveal that POS predicted significant variance in each of the investigated outcomes. It was found that voice moderated the association between POS and organizational cynicism, but in a manner that suggests a suboptimal voice climate within the organization. Officers provided open-ended qualitative comments that supported this interpretation.Practical implicationsThe evidence supports that if organizational leaders wish to prevent disadvantageous outcomes such as organizational cynicism, stress, emotional exhaustion and their consequents, then advancing both organizational support and a positive voice climate is recommended.Originality/valueThe results suggest that voice interacts with POS to influence organizational cynicism among police, highlighting the importance of responsiveness to voice for police management, and thus serving as an important bridge between theory and practice.

Supplemental Material for Mindfulness Facets and Self-Compassion as Moderators of the Relationship Between Occupational Stressors and Mental Health Symptoms in Canadian Police Officers

Supplemental Material for Mindfulness Facets and Self-Compassion as Moderators of the Relationship Between Occupational Stressors and Mental Health Symptoms in Canadian Police Officers

Psychosocial factors associated with Canadian police officers’ susceptibility to posttraumatic stress and growth.

Psychosocial factors associated with Canadian police officers’ susceptibility to posttraumatic stress and growth.

Considering Objective and Subjective Measures for Police Use of Force Evaluation.

In spite of significant interest in the application of police use of force (UOF) from organisations, researchers, and the general public, there remains no industry standard for how police UOF is trained, and by extension, evaluated. While certain UOF behaviours can be objectively measured (e.g., correct shoot/no shoot decision making (DM), shot accuracy), the subjective evaluation of many UOF skills (e.g., situation awareness, SA) falls to the discretion of individual instructors. The aim of the current brief communication is to consider the operationalisation of essential UOF behaviours as objective and subjective measures, respectively. Using longitudinal data from a sample of Canadian police officers (n = 57) evaluated during UOF training scenarios, we discuss how objective and subjective measures reflect changes in officer performance over time. Objective lethal force DM was measured as a binary ‘correct–incorrect’ outcome and subjective SA was measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘unacceptable’ to ‘exceptional’. Subjective evaluation of SA demonstrated significant changes over time, while DM remained relatively high and stable. Given the practical and professional implications of UOF, we recommend that a combination of objective and subjective measures is systematically implemented at all stages of police UOF training and evaluation (i.e., basic, advanced, in-service).

‘I’m not sick!…Are you?’ Groupthink in police services as a barrier to collecting mental health data

Despite the high prevalence of mental disorders among Canadian police officers, treatment-seeking is lower than expected. Toward understanding how mental health services can be tailored for higher utilization by police, we aim to uncover factors that contribute to stigma and barriers to use, specifically within the context of group dynamics between officers. Nine semi-structured focus groups and one interview were conducted with civilian and non-civilian police service employees in Ontario, Canada. Data were coded to allow for themes to emerge from the transcripts. Participant voices ( n=33) revealed the presence of three characteristics of Janis’ groupthink: high group cohesion, conditions that create high stress and low self-esteem, and operating under directive leadership; each creating pressures that serve as barriers to treatment-seeking [Janis IL (1972) Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions And Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin]. Groupthink offers a potential explanation about why police, despite a high prevalence of mental disorders and access to mental health services, do not seek treatment as expected. Janis’s theory of groupthink is supported by police officer dialogue in focus groups. Understanding police group interactions can better inform prevention and treatment programs, ultimately leading to better access and use of existing mental health services, a reduction in stigma associated with treatment-seeking, and a healthier police workforce.

Sex differences in mental disorder symptoms among Canadian police officers: the mediating role of social support, stress, and sleep quality

ABSTRACT Police officers, and specifically women officers, report elevated mental disorder rates relative to the general population, which may be impacted by sleep quality, policing-related stress, and social support. In a sample of Canadian police officers, sex was indirectly related to post traumatic stress, depression, generalized anxiety, panic, and social anxiety symptoms through its relationships with social support and sleep quality, but not through policing-related stress. Sex was indirectly related to problematic alcohol use symptoms through sleep quality only. Differences in clinical symptom severity between both sexes may be partially accounted for by the worsened sleep quality reported by women officers relative to their men counterparts. Conversely, general social support appears to be a protective, albeit insufficient, factor influencing the mental health of women police officers. Male and women police officers did not differ in their reports of policing-related stress. The current results underscore the importance of incorporating strategies to improve sleep practices into police workplace environments. Additionally, findings that general social support and policing-related stress do not help explain the trend of increased clinical severity reported by women police suggest that more research is still needed to identify and delineate other contributing factors.