Canadian Northwest Territories Research Articles

The Comparative Analysis of Carbon Pricing Policies on Canadian Northwest Territories’ Economy under Different Climate Change Scenarios

Policymakers in the Northwest Territories have introduced carbon pricing as a strategy to reduce fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emissions across various population segments and industries. This indirect approach, chosen for its acceptability, aims to influence behavior rather than directly limit carbon-intensive products. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the economic and ecological impacts of this policy and its alignment with intended objectives. Using a CGE macroeconomic model incorporating economic structural and behavioral equations, we assessed the policy’s effects on NWT’s economy in general and on a subset of its key sectors. We also incorporated a few observed and simulated climate data for diverse climate change scenarios. The estimated results revealed that climate variables, especially precipitation, significantly influenced sectors like agriculture, construction, and manufacturing. The standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), which encompasses both temperature and precipitation, notably impacted the agriculture, oil, and gas sectors. However, temperature alone showed limited significance, except in the oil and gas sector. The simulation results indicated that, while carbon pricing reduced economic contributions of fossil fuel sector, household rebates could counteract these effects of the economic growth of NWT. Our findings offer valuable insights for shaping NWT’s environmental policies, aligning them with Canada’s goal of net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050.

Subfossil Insect Collections From the Arctic of Northeast Asia and Northwest North America

Subfossil insects (mostly beetles) are common in the Late Cenozoic terrestrial loose deposits of the Arctic. The best-studied areas are those regions that remained ice-free during the Pleistocene — in Alaska and Yukon, northeast Siberia, and west Chukotka. Tertiary subfossil insects have been found in Alaska, Yukon, Canadian Northwest Territories, and Greenland. The northernmost sites (above 75°N) are Ellesmere and Meighen Islands in Canada, Kap Kobenhavn in Greenland, and Faddeyevsky and Navaya Sibir’ Islands in Siberia. Collections from North America and Russia are housed in research institutions such as The Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) in Ottawa, University of Alberta (UofA) in Edmonton, Paleontological Institute (PIN) in Moscow, and Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology in Yekaterinburg; collections from Greenland are housed in the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen. The collections are mainly used for research purposes, including reconstruction of past climate and environment, stratigraphy, origin of local faunas, and ecosystems of the past. A few extinct species have been described from the late Neogene and early Quaternary.

The design and performance of the XL-Calibur anticoincidence shield

The XL-Calibur balloon-borne hard X-ray polarimetry mission comprises a Compton-scattering polarimeter placed at the focal point of an X-ray mirror. The polarimeter is housed within a BGO anticoincidence shield, which is needed to mitigate the considerable background radiation present at the observation altitude of ∼40 km. This paper details the design, construction and testing of the anticoincidence shield, as well as the performance measured during the week-long maiden flight from Esrange Space Centre to the Canadian Northwest Territories in July 2022. The in-flight performance of the shield followed design expectations, with a veto threshold <100 keV and a measured background rate of ∼0.5 Hz (20–40 keV). This is compatible with the scientific goals of the mission, where %-level minimum detectable polarisation is sought for a Hz-level source rate.

Estimation of aboveground biomass, stand density, and biomass growth per year in the past using stand reconstruction technique in black spruce and Scotch pine in boreal forest

Growth development histories and stands structures of Picea mariana in Inuvik (Canadian Northwest Territories), and Pinus sylvetstris in Värriö (Finnish Lapland) forests were reconstructed using the stand reconstruction algorithm. Informations of present forest variables i.e., stem diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height (H), and detailed tree-ring data obtained from selected sampled trees were used. Development of forests structure in the past, and their annual changes were reconstructed (i.e., aboveground biomass, annual biomass growth, and stand density). Reconstructed aboveground biomass showed that the beta-type distribution function of individual tree size in the forests has been maintained throughout the years in the past. Several fluctuations in biomass growth over time were also observed. Reconstruction showed that stand density generally decreased overtime in P. sylvestris, which is a typical pattern for overcrowded population, but keeps increasing in P. mariana. Long-term reconstruction of stand structure can provide important baseline information for forest ecology and any management or restoration activities in the point of view of climate change. However, estimation of stand density and biomass growth can be improved by a careful selection of sample trees for stem analysis, but also by collecting growth information of dead wood materials.

‘I think it is the toughest animal in the North’: human-wolverine interactions among hunters and trappers in the Canadian Northwest Territories

ABSTRACTThe wolverine (Gulo gulo), a carnivore species of ‘Special Concern’ for its western population and ‘Endangered’ for its eastern population, is of special management concern in Canada. Hence understanding human-wolverine relationships and human perceptions toward this carnivore species has become important. Moreover, wolverines are harvested for fur in northern Canada, thus hunters and trappers who live in the vicinity with this species are key stakeholders. Using semi-structured interviews and questionnaires we analysed human-wolverine interactions and perceptions among Dene and Métis hunters and trappers in the Canadian Northwest Territories. We found that hunters and trappers had comprehensive knowledge about wolverine ecology and behavior. Values associated with this species ranged from respect for their tenacious character and strength, to describing the wolverine as a trickster. Stories emphasizing the wolverines’ mischievous nature were also common. Dene and Métis hunters and trappers acknowledge the importance of the wolverine in the socio-ecological system and have observed the cumulative impacts that climate and human-induced landscape change have had on wolverine habitat and population dynamics. Listening to hunters and trappers is one path towards more insightful management options in situations involving conflicts with wolverines.

Connection to the land as a youth-identified social determinant of Indigenous Peoples\u2019 health

BackgroundSocial determinants of Indigenous health are known to include structural determinants such as history, political climate, and social contexts. Relationships, interconnectivity, and community are fundamental to these determinants. Understanding these determinants from the perspective of Indigenous youth is vital to identifying means of alleviating future inequities.MethodsIn 2016, fifteen Yellowknives Dene First Nation (YKDFN) youth in the Canadian Northwest Territories participated in the 'On-the-Land Health Leadership Camp'. Using a strength- and community-based participatory approach through an Indigenous research lens, the YKDFN Wellness Division and university researchers crafted the workshop to provide opportunities for youth to practice cultural skills, and to capture the youth’s perspectives of health and health agency. Perspectives of a healthy community, health issues, and health priorities were collected from youth through sharing circles, PhotoVoice, mural art, and surveys.ResultsThe overall emerging theme was that a connection to the land is an imperative determinant of YKDFN health. Youth identified the importance of a relationship to land including practicing cultural skills, Elders passing on traditional knowledge, and surviving off the land. The youth framed future health research to include roles for youth and an on-the-land component that builds YKDFN culture, community relations, and traditional knowledge transfer. Youth felt that a symbiotic relationship between land, environment, and people is fundamental to building a healthy community.ConclusionOur research confirmed there is a direct and critical relationship between structural context and determinants of Indigenous Peoples’ health, and that this should be incorporated into health research and interventions.

Application of multi‐kinetic apatite fission track and (U‐Th)/He thermochronology to source rock thermal history: a case study from the Mackenzie Plain, NWT, Canada

AbstractShale of the Upper Cretaceous Slater River Formation extends across the Mackenzie Plain of the Canadian Northwest Territories and has potential as a regional source rock because of the high organic content and presence of both oil‐ and gas‐prone kerogen. An understanding of the thermal history experienced by the shale is required to predict any potential petroleum systems. Our study integrates multi‐kinetic apatite fission track (AFT) and apatite (U‐Th)/He (AHe) thermochronometers from a basal bentonite unit to understand the timing and magnitude of Late Cretaceous burial experienced by the Slater River Formation along the Imperial River. We use LA‐ICP‐MS and EPMA methods to assess the chemistry of apatite, and use these values to derive the AFT kinetic parameter rmr0. Our AFT dates and track lengths, respectively, range from 201.5 ± 36.9 Ma to 47.1 ± 12.3 Ma, and 16.8 to 10.2 μm, and single crystal AHe dates are between 57.9 ± 3.5 and 42.0 ± 2.5 Ma with effective uranium concentrations from 17 ppm to 36 ppm. The fission track data show no relationship with the kinetic parameter Dpar and fail the χ2‐test indicating that the data do not comprise a single statistically significant population. However, when plotted against their rmr0 value, the data are separated into two statistically significant kinetic populations with distinct track length distributions. Inverse thermal history modelling of both the multi‐kinetic AFT and AHe datasets, reveal that the Slater River Formation reached maximum burial temperatures of ~65–90 °C between the Turonian and Paleocene, indicating that the source rock matured to the early stages of hydrocarbon generation, at best. Ultimately, our data highlight the importance of kinetic parameter choice for AFT and AHe thermochronology, as slight variations in apatite chemistry may have significant implications on fission track and radiation damage annealing in apatite with protracted thermal histories through the uppermost crust.

Risk communication and trust in decision-maker action: a case study of the Giant Mine Remediation Plan

BackgroundThe development and implementation of a remediation plan for the residual arsenic trioxide stored at the former Giant Mine site in the Canadian Northwest Territories has raised important issues related to trust. Social and individual trust of those responsible for making decisions on risks is critically important in community judgements on risk and the acceptability of risk management decisions. Trust is known to be affected by value similarity and confidence in past performance, which serve as interacting sources of cooperation in acting toward a common goal.ObjectiveTo explore the elements of trust associated with the development and implementation of the Giant Mine Remediation Plan.DesignSemi-structured interviews were conducted with eight purposively selected key informants representing both various interested and affected parties and the two government proponents.ResultsFive primary issues related to trust were identified by the participants: (1) a historical legacy of mistrust between the community (particularly Aboriginal peoples) and government; (2) barriers to building trust with the federal government; (3) limited community input and control over the decision-making process; (4) the conflicted and confounded role of the government agencies being both proponent and regulator, and the resulting need for independent oversight; and (5) distrust of the government to commit to the perpetual care required for the remediation option selected.ConclusionsThe dual-mode model of trust and confidence was shown to be a useful framework for understanding the pivotal role of trust in the development of the Giant Mine Remediation Plan. Failure to recognize issues of trust based on value dissimilarity and lack of confidence based on past performance have resulted in a lack of cooperation characterized by delayed remediation and a prolonged and expensive consultation process. Government recognition of the importance of trust to these issues will hopefully improve future communication and public engagement endeavours.

Lateral plucking as a mechanism for elongate erosional glacial bedforms: explaining megagrooves in Britain and Canada

ABSTRACTMegagrooves are kilometre‐scale linear topographic lows carved in bedrock, separated by ridges, typically in areas of largely devoid of till. They have been reported from several areas covered by Pleistocene glaciations, such as Canadian Northwest (NW) Territories, Michigan and NW Scotland. Here we report two previously undocumented megagroove fields from Ungava, Canada, and northern England, and present new analyses of the megagrooves from NW Scotland. This paper seeks to determine the nature of the lithological and structural controls on the occurrence and formation of megagrooves. Analysis of both geomorphological and bedrock properties shows that megagrooves are generally: confined to well stratified or layered bedrock, such as (meta)sedimentary rocks with closely spaced joints, and tend not to occur on massive rocks such as gneiss or granite, or thick‐bedded sedimentary rocks; subparallel to palaeo‐ice flow and the strike of the strata; and tend not to occur where palaeo‐ice flow is at high angles to the strike of strata; produced by significant glacial erosion by sustained unidirectional ice flow.Detailed analysis of megagrooves in NW Scotland shows that neither glacio‐fluvial erosion, nor differential abrasion was the dominant mechanism of formation. A mechanism, here termed ‘lateral plucking’, is suggested that involves block plucking on rock steps parallel to ice flow. Removal of joint‐bounded blocks from such rock steps involves a component of rotation along a vertical axis. Block removal may be enhanced by a direct component of shear stress onto the vertical stoss sides. The lateral plucking mechanism results in horizontal erosion at right angles to the ice flow, and enhances the groove/ridge topography. Megagrooves are potentially useful as palaeo‐ice flow indicators in areas devoid of till, and can thus complement the palaeo‐ice stream datasets which are presently largely based on soft‐sediment landform studies. British Geological Survey © NERC 2011

Equivalent Elevation: A New Method to Incorporate Variable Surface Lapse Rates into Mountain Permafrost Modelling

ABSTRACTPermafrost is present at multiple elevations with no defined lower limit in the southern Yukon Territory, Canada. Empirical statistical modelling of permafrost probability in the region required the development of equivalent elevation, a new variable that reflects measured differences between surface air temperature lapse rates below and above treeline. In areas where surface lapse rates are negative (normal) but gentle up to the altitudinal treeline, equivalent elevation results in a compressed elevational range. Where surface lapse rates are positive (inverted) in the forest due to the strength of winter inversions, equivalent elevations calculated for valley floors are higher than those at treeline. There is a strong relationship between the magnitude and sign of surface lapse rates below treeline and the annual amplitude of monthly air temperatures at nearby climate stations, which permits prediction of equivalent elevation for the entire region. Permafrost probability modelling using equivalent elevation produced statistically significant results in several study areas whereas actual elevation values did not. The concept is of particular use where forested areas are underlain by permafrost and may be transferable to areas with similar terrain and climate such as those in the Canadian Northwest Territories, Alaska and Mongolia. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Limnological features and models of chlorophyll-a in 30 lakes located in the lower Mackenzie River basin, Northwest Territories (Canada)

Limnological variables from 30 lakes situated along the proposed Mackenzie Gas Project pipeline route in the Canadian Northwest Territories were examined. Sampled lakes were shallow (Zmax = 1.5-30 m; mean depth = 6.6 m), generally nutrient poor (TP often ≤10 μg L-1), and alkaline (mean pH = 8.2). Floodplain lakes located within Arctic-tundra watersheds tended to have higher conductivity and major ions (Na, Cl, Ca, SO4) concentrations relative to non-flooded Arctic-tundra or forest-tundra lakes, reflecting differences in vegetation, elevation and most importantly, proximity to the Mackenzie River. The first two axes of a principal component analysis explained 56.1% of the variance in the environmental data. Variables most strongly associated with the first principal component axis were latitude, elevation, dissolved oxygen, temperature, conductivity and turbidity while the second principal component axis represented gradients of nutrients and Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a). Factors affecting Chl-a varied among the different ecological zones. This study provides reference data for future monitoring of potential effects of development and warming in the Arctic.

Extreme Biomedical Engineering (Western Africa)

In Brief Can a micromodeled health technology management system designed for a harsh and isolated environment of the Canadian Northwest Territories be transferred in a sustainable way to West Africa? Even more, can the program take the next step and actually take on more scope of responsibility than many well-established Western programs (eg, full in-house support of high-level laboratory technology and radiology technology)? From polar bears, ice roads on the Arctic Ocean, and −50 °C to monitor lizards, African roads, and greater than 38 °C, this is extreme biomedical engineering. In the past 4 years, the United Kingdom's Medical Research Council Laboratories in The Gambia, West Africa, has transformed a group of 3 junior electronic assistants repairing only very minor equipment out of one-third of a modified shipping container into a full biomedical technology management program that supports complex laboratory and diagnostic imaging technologies "in-house" with a staff of 10 and significant resources. Can a micromodeled health technology management system designed for a harsh and isolated environment of the Canadian Northwest Territories be transferred in a sustainable way to West Africa? Even more, can the program take the next step and actually take on more scope of responsibility than many well-established Western programs (eg, full in-house support of high-level laboratory technology and radiology technology)? From polar bears, ice roads on the Arctic Ocean, and -50 °C to monitor lizards, African roads, and greater than 38 °C, this is extreme biomedical engineering. In the past 4 years, the United Kingdom's Medical Research Council Laboratories in The Gambia, West Africa, has transformed a group of 3 junior electronic assistants repairing only very minor equipment out of one-third of a modified shipping container into a full biomedical technology management program that supports complex laboratory and diagnostic imaging technologies "in-house" with a staff of 10 and significant resources.

A study of the impact of oil and gas development on the Dene First Nations of the Sahtu (Great Bear Lake) Region of the Canadian Northwest Territories (NWT)

PurposeBeneath Canada's Northwest Territories lies a potential of 30 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. Will a $16 billion gas‐pipeline bring prosperity or gloom? Will this bring employment opportunities for local people or will more qualified people be brought in from southern communities? The purpose of this paper is to give an account of what Dene residents of the Sahtu Region have to say about oil and gas development.Design/methodology/approachStarting in 2005, in‐depth interviews with people across the Sahtu Region are conducted.FindingsRespondents recognise the short‐term advantages of building a pipeline, but they are concerned about the long‐term impact on the environment that currently ensures their livelihood.Research limitations/implicationsThis study begs for a longitudinal follow‐up.Practical implicationsPolicy‐makers may benefit from knowing the feelings of their constituents.Originality/valueThis timely study reveals long‐term environmental and social impacts of short‐term development. This is especially important in a region where people believe that they have an obligation to the land upon which they live.

Increasing winter baseflow and mean annual streamflow from possible permafrost thawing in the Northwest Territories, Canada

Increasing surface air temperatures from anthropogenic forcing are melting permafrost at high latitudes and intensifying the hydrological cycle. Long‐term streamflow records (≥30 yrs) from 23 stream gauges in the Canadian Northwest Territories (NWT) indicate a general significant upward trend in winter baseflow of 0.5–271.6 %/yr and the beginning of significant increasing mean annual flow (seen at 39% of studied gauge records), as assessed by the Kendall‐τ test. The NWT exports an average discharge of ≥308.6 km3/yr to the Beaufort Sea, of which ≥120.9 km3/yr is baseflow. We propose that the increases in winter baseflow and mean annual streamflow in the NWT were caused predominately by climate warming via permafrost thawing that enhances infiltration and deeper flowpaths and hydrological cycle intensification. To provide hydroclimatic context, we present evidence of a statistically significant positive link between the Northern annular mode and annual NWT streamflow at the interannual‐to‐decadal timescales.

A novel missense RAG-1 mutation results in T−B−NK+ SCID in Athabascan-speaking Dine Indians from the Canadian Northwest Territories

DNA double-strand repair factors in the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway resolve DNA double-strand breaks introduced by the recombination-activating gene (RAG) proteins during V(D)J recombination of T and B lymphocyte receptor genes. Defective NHEJ and subsequent failure of V(D)J recombination leads to severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID). We originally linked T(-)B(-)NK(+) SCID in Athabascan-speaking Native Americans in the Southwestern US and Northwest Territories of Canada to chromosome 10. However, despite a common ancestry, the null mutation in the Artemis gene that we found to be causal in the SCID among the Navajo and Apache Indians was not present in the Dine Indians in the Northwest Territories. We now report a novel homozygous missense mutation (R776W) in RAG-1 in three children with T(-)B(-)NK(+) SCID from two related families of Athabascan-speaking Dine Indians in the Canadian Northwest Territories. As expected, we found no increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation in patient fibroblasts. The impaired activity of this RAG-1 mutant in V(D)J recombination was confirmed by the EGFP-based V(D)J recombination assays. Overexpression of wild type RAG-1 in patient fibroblasts complemented V(D)J recombination, with recovery of both coding and signal joint formation. Our results indicate that the novel R776W missense mutation in RAG-1 is causal in the T(-)B(-)NK(+) SCID phenotype in Athabascan-speaking Dine Indians from the Canadian Northwest Territories.

Predicting forest floor moisture for burned and unburned Pinus banksiana forests in the Canadian Northwest Territories

We assessed how well the fuel moisture codes of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System can be used to predict forest floor moisture in burned and in mature, unburned jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands in Canada’s Northwest Territories. Moisture content sampled at varying depths in the forest floor profile was compared with hourly variations in the Fine Fuel Moisture Code and daily variations in the Duff Moisture Code and Drought Code. Fuel moisture samples were collected in June 2000 and August 2002 from one mature forest stand and four experimental plots that were burned between 1997 and 2000. Forest floor moisture, drying rate, and water-holding capacity varied between the mature, unburned forest and burned plot areas, as well as between surface and subsurface fuel layers within the mature forest. The Duff Moisture Code was the best predictor of forest floor moisture for all the fuel components examined, based on the coefficient of determination (r2 = 0.81–0.90) and because its relationship with forest floor moisture more closely resembled relationships observed in previous studies.

An overburden thickness model for Lac de Gras and Aylmer Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada

Please click here to download the map associated with this article. Much of northern Canada is covered by variable thicknesses of surficial sediment. Geological maps portray these sediments using subjective terminology such as till, marine sediments, esker or organics etc. surficial sediment and bedrock geology units are primarily derived from air photo interpretation. In the Lac de Gras and Aylmer Lake area of the Canadian Northwest Territories, there is limited primary depth-to-bedrock information, and thus a traditional overburden thickness model is difficult to acquire. A model can however be developed using inferred unit thickness information obtained from published 1:125,000 surficial geology maps and a digital elevation model. The modelling process is based on the construction of a bedrock elevation database that is subtracted from a digital elevation mode to provide an overburden thickness. The bedrock elevation database is derived by assigning each surficial unit an approximate thickness and subsequently subtracting this thickness from the each cell of the digital elevation mode. The resulting dataset represents a best approximation of the buried bedrock surface with a cell size determined by the digital elevation mode. This model may be used for a number of applications such as planning regional geophysical or geochemical surveys where data quality is affected by variable overburden thickness.

Discrimination of conifer height, age and crown closure classes using Landsat-5 TM imagery in the Canadian Northwest Territories

Empirical relationships between forest stand attributes and Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper spectral response were developed in order to assess its informational value in support of forest inventory operations in the Northwest Territories. An existing large-area classification procedure, based on a supervised methodology, has been able to generate classes of white spruce and jack pine. Within individual forest species groups, spectral variability related to differences in crown closure, height and age is of interest to forest managers in the region. The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy with which stands within the white spruce and jack pine classes could be further separated into two stand height classes (< 15 m and S 15 m), two age classes (< 100 years and S 100 years) and two crown closure classes (< 30% and S 30%) with a single (summer) Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) image. Discrimination generally improved with the addition of spectral texture measures where independently assessed accuracies ranged from 60 to 90%. A look-up table was devised for conifer-dominated areas (> 80% dominant species) which could subsequently be assigned for height, age and crown closure class values based on Landsat TM spectral response patterns.

Shaman or Sherlock?: the Native American detective

Introduction Two Ways of Knowing: Mainstream and Native American Native American Crime and Detection Novels: Earth and Spirit Power The Southwestern Detective Story: A Reflection of the Land The Southwestern Detective: Shaman or Sherlock? Shamans and Sherlocks: Unraveling Crime in the Mountains and on the Plains The Northwest: Shamanistic Horror Infuses Eerie Rain Forests Alaska and the Canadian Northwest Territories: Wilderness Challenges and Human Limitations The East Coast and Great Lakes Nations: Modern Reincarnations of Past Glory Conclusion: The Indian in Detective Fiction-- Present Realities and Future Directions Bibliography Index

Bone marrow transplantation for T-B- severe combined immunodeficiency disease in Athabascan-speaking native Americans.

A distinct form of autosomal recessive T-B- severe combined immunodeficiency disease occurs with a high frequency among Athabascan-speaking Native Americans (SCIDA), including Navajo and Apache Indians from the southwestern US and Dene Indians from the Canadian Northwest Territories. The SCIDA gene has been linked to markers on chromosome 10p although its identity and role in the pathogenesis of this disease are unknown. We report our experience in treating 18 Navajo and Dene children with SCIDA between 1984 and 1999; 16 underwent bone marrow transplants (BMT). All children were symptomatic within 2 months of birth, had the T-B- NK(+)SCID phenotype and 67% presented with oral and/or genital ulcers. Three children had evidence of maternal engraftment prior to transplant. Two children died shortly after diagnosis. Three children required more than one BMT and 12 are alive with T cell reconstitution at a median follow-up of 7 years. Three children developed normal B cell immunity, two of whom received ablative conditioning therapy with either radiation or busulfan. Three of the four children who died received therapy with either radiation or busulfan and two of eight long-term survivors who were also recipients of cytotoxic chemotherapy have failed to develop secondary teeth. These results demonstrate the efficacy of BMT in treating infants with this distinct form of SCID, although B cell reconstitution remains a problem even with HLA-matched donors. Without conditioning, T cell engraftment is likely when closely HLA-matched donors are used. With T cell depletion of haplocompatible marrow, conditioning with immunosuppressive therapy may be necessary; however, children with SCIDA who were treated with intensive immunosuppressive and myeloablative therapy had a poor outcome.