Canadian Government Research Articles

Translating Law and Code in Government: Algorithmic Decisions and Their Legal Effects in Canada

This article analyzes the translation of law into computer code and the use of automated decision-making systems in government to make legal distinctions. Specifically, how are algorithmic decisions tied to law, and what happens when legal effects are mediated through technologies? The sociology of translation and Bruno Latour's theory of law, as elaborated by Kyle McGee, provides the means to study associations between law and technology. I trace how the force of law can be extended when mediated through computer systems and analyze the associations of law and technology in Canada's government, through projects exemplifying the shift to “code-driven law.” These include the translation of “rules-as-code,” and several of the sociotechnical systems governing Canada's borders, demonstrating how design choices in government digital services inevitably shape the outcomes of public policy and can have legal effects. While Latour's legal scholarship avoided traditional questions of legitimacy, a key consideration for automated government systems is how legitimacy is constructed and contested. For rules-as-code, legitimate algorithmic outcomes should be traceable to law, but existing government systems commonly maintain legitimacy by identifying a human actor “in-the-loop” as the ultimate decision-maker, thereby obscuring how thoroughly imbricated human and algorithmic agency are in contemporary governance.

Quantification of Carbon Flux Patterns in Ecosystems: A Case Study of Prince Edward Island

Mitigating climate change by reducing heat-trapping greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the Earth’s atmosphere is a critical global challenge. In response to this urgency, the Canadian government has set a target of achieving zero emissions by 2050. The Government of Prince Edward Island (PEI) has committed to becoming Canada’s first net-zero province by 2040. Achieving this goal requires an extensive knowledge of emissions arising from ecosystem dynamics in PEI. Therefore, this study aims to quantify the carbon fluxes of these ecosystems, offering insights into their role in GHG emissions and removals. Through an extensive literature review and analysis, this research provides a detailed assessment of the potential carbon flux contributions from various ecosystems across PEI. High-resolution maps for carbon emissions, removals, and flux for the years 2010 and 2020 were developed, highlighting key findings on carbon dynamics. Additionally, a web-based tool was developed to allow decision makers and the general public to explore these carbon flux maps interactively. This work aims to inform policy decisions and enhance strategies for effective climate change mitigation in PEI.

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on health and social professionals working with people with disabilities: A qualitative study.

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, protection and isolation measures established by the Canadian and Quebec governments have directly affected the work of health and social professionals (HSPs). These measures have added pressure on HSPs, complexified their work and added tasks to their already busy workload. However, few studies have explored in depth the impacts of the pandemic on HSPs working with people with disabilities. The objective of this study was to qualitatively explore the experiences of HSPs working among people with disabilities in the province of Quebec, Canada, during the COVID-19 pandemic (January and February 2021), including the impact on their work, the relationships with their colleagues, and on their immediate social and familial environment. HSPs participated in a semi-structured interview. A mixed thematic analysis approach, combining inductive and deductive coding, was carried out using N'Vivo 12. Fifty-five HSPs participated in the interviews (mean [SD] age, 42 [9]). They mostly identified as women (91%). Three main themes representing the impacts of the pandemic were identified, including 1) Health and Well-being; 2) Family and social networks including the subthemes; 2.1) Fear of being a vector of contamination for their loved ones; 2.2) Work-family balance; 2.3) Social Network, and finally 3) Work, highlighting, including 3.1) Workload and adaptative strategies developed; 3.2) Relationship with colleagues; 3.3) Perceived support received at work, and 3.4) Services offered to patients. These findings highlight the importance of closely tracking and supporting the well-being of HSPs.

The M in Multiculturalism Stands for Myth: The Performative Idealization in Canada’s Multicultural Policies

As described on the Government of Canada’s online database, the Canadian Multiculturalism Act of 1988 is a piece of federal legislation intended to recognize multiculturalism as a fundamental characteristic of Canadian society and to preserve diverse cultural identities (Ministry of Justice, 2014, p. 1). Despite this promise, the Canadian government has failed to adequately recognize the various cultures that have been assimilated and destroyed in the name of preserving the Canadian identity. Further, many of these communities suffer from the results of institutionally constructed hate that has been directed towards them to this day. Examining the origins of Canada as it developed through the lens of Chinese Canadian and Indigenous communities, this paper will examine how assimilation is encouraged for members of these groups and new immigrants in present-day Canada, most notably in Quebec. By looking at the past and present contexts of Indigenous and Chinese Canadian communities as well as assimilation tactics in Quebec that prevent various emerging cultural identities from developing, this paper will argue that multiculturalism is sold as a performative idealization in Canada.

Cross‐Domain Information Integration in Government: Hierarchies and Responsibilities

ABSTRACTCross‐domain integration of information is increasingly identified as a priority across public sector contexts because (in theory) it enables the use of more information, including information from groups and communities historically excluded from public sector decision making. In this paper, we reject the tendency to take ‘integration’ for granted, arguing the need to position cross‐domain integration as an information practice, and conducting mixed methods thematic analysis of government strategic documents to validate the utility of this approach. We find that depending on the type of information proposed to be integrated — digital data versus the knowledge of peoples and communities — our sample of Canadian government institutions treats cross‐domain integration with differing levels of procedural rigour and detail. Reflecting ASIS&T 2024 themes of prioritizing responsibility and reflexivity in information practice, and of cultivating community partnerships through practice, not merely in name, we discuss the information hierarchies that emerge in the cross‐domain information integration in government and the associated impacts on stakeholder communities.

“What do you mean by that?”: solidarity in Canadian development practice

PurposeWith the launch of the Feminist International Assistance Policy (FIAP), the Canadian government named solidarity as a shared value and a driving motivation behind the FIAP. This paper explores how development workers understand and apply solidarity to their work, uncovering the opportunities and constraints they face.Design/methodology/approachIn-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 42 development workers from Canada’s federal development agency between 2019 and 2020. Transcribed data were coded by the author to identify how workers made sense of solidarity within the development industry.FindingsThe majority of workers were unsure of how to define or operationalize solidarity, demonstrating confusion. Commonality was routinely mentioned as a facet of solidarity, but workers understood this term in diverse ways, with some considering commonality as a precondition that inhibited a sense of solidarity with development partners in the global South due to differences in living conditions. About a quarter identified power and privilege as necessary considerations in the process of building solidarity, showing potential for bonds across the inequalities that define development. About 40% of workers identified the institutional structure of the organization as an obstacle to solidarity.Originality/valueThis paper presents original data from Canadian development workers, providing the first study of their understanding of solidarity as a development ethic. It shows the gaps between rhetoric and practice while recommending ways for development organizations to meaningfully engage with solidarity in their work.

Cannabis Legalization in Canada and Combatting the Illicit Cannabis Market

Despite the elimination of the illegal cannabis market being a fundamental element to cannabis legalization, as outlined in the Cannabis Act (S.C. 2018, c. 16), the Canadian federal government's efforts have had a mild impact in mitigating its influence. In analyzing possible contributions to the illicit sector's sustainability, these factors are in large part due to the federal government failing to understand consumer behaviours in recreational cannabis usage, as evidenced by lack of accommodation for frequent users, pricing and quality of legal cannabis compared to illegal cannabis, alongside faulty enforcement of cannabis law due to issues of conciseness and discretionary powers between the police and federal government. However, there are some suggestions that could better help the federal government in achieving its goal of combatting the illegal cannabis market. The potential amendments to cannabis policy include lowering tax on legal cannabis to better compete with illegal cannabis at the market level while refocusing on addressing public health concerns through promoting the safety of legal cannabis, controlling accessibility of legal cannabis, and providing public education regarding cannabis consumption. If done correctly, each amendment made would address the flaws within cannabis policy, allowing the Canadian federal government to combat the illegal cannabis market more efficiently.

Balancing Act: Reassessing the Canadian Government Environmental Priorities in the Wake of the Sydney Tar Ponds Disaster

"Does the government of Canada care about us, or even this land?" is a sentiment often voiced by many Sydney, Nova Scotia locals. Here, there is growing concern that the Canadian government's approach to environmental issues may be overly centred on human health, neglecting the vital dimension of animal health. While the Canadian government is known to prioritize human wellbeing as can be seen during the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfires and the 2013 Alberta floods, it is equally crucial to recognize the interconnectedness of ecological systems, wherein the welfare of animals plays a pivotal role. As Canada grapples with pressing environmental challenges like wildfires in British Columbia and depleting salmon populations on the Atlantic Coast, there is a predominant need for a paradigm shift in the government's approach—one that places equal emphasis on safeguarding both human and animal health. Throughout history, the Canadian government has been recognized for prioritizing the mitigation of human health concerns over those related to animal health, exemplified by the case of the Sydney Tar Ponds. The government's remediation efforts for the Tar Ponds were grossly inadequate, as they failed to sufficiently mitigate environmental hazards, focusing solely on human hazards, a pattern evident in many of their previous interventions. The holistic cleanup necessary for the preservation of aquatic life and the environment was missing, which raises concerns about the potential resurgence of animal and human health concerns in the future.

20 years of choices: a fight for increased funding for graduate students.

After 20 years of stagnation, federal scholarships have finally been increased within the new budget of the Canadian government. Tuition fees, inflation, and costs of living kept rising, which has resulted a rising number of graduate students in the life sciences living below poverty line, despite working far more than 40 h a week on science research in Canada. This does not only negatively affect the students research projects and thus science and innovation in Canada, but also their downstream decisions on whether to continue a research career in Canada and what jobs and economic endeavors to pursue. Graduate students are not just a line item in the budgets of universities, but integral for science and innovation, as well as the future high-quality personnel of the country. This importance should be reflected in all stipends and salaries of graduate students, not just the ones with a government scholarship.

Advanced Forecasting of Drought Zones in Canada Using Deep Learning and CMIP6 Projections

This study addresses the critical issue of drought zoning in Canada using advanced deep learning techniques. Drought, exacerbated by climate change, significantly affects ecosystems, agriculture, and water resources. Canadian Drought Monitor (CDM) data provided by the Canadian government and ERA5-Land daily data were utilized to generate a comprehensive time series of mean monthly precipitation and air temperature for 199 sample locations in Canada from 1979 to 2023. These data were processed in the Google Earth Engine (GEE) environment and used to develop a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model to estimate CDM values, thereby filling gaps in historical drought data. The CanESM5 climate model, as assessed in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, was employed under four climate change scenarios to predict future drought conditions. Our CNN model forecasts CDM values up to 2100, enabling accurate drought zoning. The results reveal significant trends in temperature changes, indicating areas most vulnerable to future droughts, while precipitation shows a slow increasing trend. Our analysis indicates that under extreme climate scenarios, certain regions may experience a significant increase in the frequency and severity of droughts, necessitating proactive planning and mitigation strategies. These findings are critical for policymakers and stakeholders in designing effective drought management and adaptation programs.

Words not deeds: the weak culture of evidence in the Canadian policy style

Abstract The Canadian policy style has been described as one of overpromising and underdelivering, where heightened expectations are often met by underwhelming outcomes. Here, we examine the evidentiary style of Canadian policy-making which undergirds and reflects this policy style, particularly the nature of the policy advisory system that contributes to this pattern of policy-making. We do so by assessing how the different components of the advice system, which include academics, consultants, and policy professionals within the public service, are structured and relate to each other within the overall dynamics of information management and policy formulation in the governments of Canada. Using examples from recent efforts to revitalize Canadian government, the paper argues that the federal government in particular shows a pattern of the predominance of non-innovative academic “super-users,” distributed policy shops, and process-oriented analysts and consultants who combine with attributes of federalism and partisan budgetary politics to drive a distinctively fragmented and procedurally-oriented federal policy-making process. In these processes, evidence is often secondary to political posturing and short-term electioneering in program creation and execution, contributing greatly to the national policy style set out above.

Changes in Cannabis Use Patterns in Psychiatric Populations Pre- and Post-Legalization of Recreational Cannabis Use in Canada: A Repeated Cross-Sectional Survey

Objective: Since the federal Canadian government legalized cannabis in 2018, cannabis use in the general population has slightly increased. However, little is known about the impact of cannabis legalization on pattens of cannabis use in psychiatric populations. Method: We studied changes in daily/almost daily and average 30-day cannabis use amongst individuals currently using cannabis who reported past 12-month experiences of specific mental health disorders and among those without past 12-month experiences of any mental health disorder before and after Canadian legalization of recreational cannabis use (N = 13,527). Data came from Canadian respondents in Wave 1 (August–October 2018), Wave 2 (September–October 2019), and Wave 3 (September–November 2020) of the International Cannabis Policy Study (ICPS). Results: After adjustment for covariates, among individuals currently using cannabis, the odds of using cannabis daily/almost daily increased only in individuals with schizophrenia between Wave 1 and Waves 3 (aOR = 9.19, 95% CI: 2.46 – 34.37). Similarly, significant increases in average 30-day cannabis use between Wave 1 (M = 12.80, SE = 1.65) and Wave 3 (M = 18.07, SE = 1.03) were observed only among individuals with schizophrenia [F (1,2) = 4.58, p < .05). No significant changes in daily/almost daily or average past 30-day cannabis use were observed in those without mental health problems or those reporting anxiety, depression, PTSD, bipolar disorder, or substance use disorders. Conclusions: Since legalization, cannabis use has significantly increased only among people with schizophrenia, highlighting the need for targeted public health prevention programs.

The Canadian AIDA and the EU AI Act: Will Sanity Prevail as they more closely align? – Part 1

Abstract On June 16, 2022, the Canadian government introduced Bill C- 27, sponsored by the Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry, to update Canada’s federal privacy legal landscape. As earthshaking as that legislation was to the privacy regime in Canada, the impact of Bill C-27 was not limited to privacy regulation. Notably, Bill C-27 also introduced the Artificial Intelligence and Data Act (“AIDA”), which aims to introduce regulations in Canada regarding the design, development, and use of artificial intelligence (“AI”) systems. As we have previously written, while the AIDA is Canada’s first potential law aimed explicitly at regulating AI, it is in many cases influenced by the European Union’s then-proposed Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 (the “EU AI Act”) introduced on April 21, 2021. Time has since elapsed, and now AIDA - with the November 2023 introduction of new proposed (and substantive) amendments - and the July 2024 publication of the final EU Council-approved EU AI Act, have become increasingly aligned: good news for organizations in the AI industry. There do, however, continue to exist differences between the two items of legislation which can present traps for the unwary.

Political backlash and consumer boycotts: Evidence from the NFB relocation and movie demand in Canada

AbstractIn this paper, we investigate the impact of the announcement in 1952 of a change in Canadian cultural policy, namely the reorganization of the National Film Board (NFB) and the move of its headquarters from Ottawa to Montréal, on movie demand. Using weekly box office revenue data for a subsample of movie theatres in Toronto and Montréal from 1945 to 1955, we estimate the impact of this policy change with a triple difference estimator and find that the NFB headquarters move in Canada was followed by a decrease in movie attendance for movies produced in anglophone countries and an increase in movie attendance for French movies in Montréal. We complement our analysis with Odesi public poll Canadian data from 1949 to 1959 and find that poll respondents from Quebec held a more negative opinion about the decisions of the Canadian government and the tide of Americanization, relative to respondents elsewhere, and that their opinion deteriorated further after the relocation announcement and the relocation itself took place. This finding is consistent with our hypothesis that the relocation of NFB headquarters caused political backlash and triggered a boycott against anglophone, especially American, movies in Quebec.

Life of a Type 1 diabetic.

This article discusses the life of a Type 1 diabetic. Everything is a danger. Stress, flu, infection, or a common cold could all lead to a hospital stay. There are many negative long-term effects: blindness, loss of a limb, heart attacks, etc. Every day is an effort to keep on top of things. The diabetes cannot be forgotten or ignored. The cost of living with diabetes is atrocious, between the devices, insulin, and other needed supplies. It is expensive to be sick. On top of the insulin pump, there are numerous supplies, such as reservoirs to hold the insulin, the infusion sets to put the plastic needle into the body, along with tubing to carry the insulin from the pump to the insertion point on the abdomen. There are also continuous glucose monitors (CGM), which include a transmitter, as well as sensors that have to be changed weekly. These items are much needed for people like the author, who after having diabetes for 24 years, find it difficult to feel low blood sugars. This difficulty feeling low blood sugars is quite dangerous, and may lead to seizures, brain damage, or even death if unnoticed and untreated. With CGM technology, the transmitter and sensors have saved the author on multiple occasions from seizures, or worse. They are a necessity, and the author needs the CGMs to protect her life. The author highlights a promise of hope in the Canadian Government's plan to financially cover "diabetic medications and supplies." And while it would not cover the expensive drugs not currently covered by the author's insurance, it does mean insulin and oral medications for Type 2 diabetes will no longer be paid out of pocket. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Muzzles and Mixed Messages: Issues Between Science and the Federal Government In Canada’s Past and Present

Richter examines the historical relationship between the federal government of Canada and the scientists it has employed over the past few decades. She compares science policy and practices from leaders such as Diefenbaker and Trudeau to the policies currently followed by Stephen Harper’s government. Richter asks what might be achieved by following those policies, despite the criticism received by the science community. The paper will ultimately argue that the federal government and scientists have often had a contentious relationship, and the often criticized policies of the current Conservative government are not at all novel. Ultimately, she argues that these Conservative policies are intended to present a unified political front to the broader Canadian public and to the world.

Pierre Trudeau’s White Paper and the Struggle for Aboriginal Rights in Canada: An Analysis of the Extent to which the White Paper was a Turning Point in the Struggle for Aboriginal Rights and Land Claims in Canada

This paper contends that Pierre Trudeau’s 1969 “White Paper” on the status of Aboriginals in Canada was not a major turning point in improving the status of Aboriginals in Canada, but succeeded in inspiring activism and interest in the plight of Canada’s First Nations. The policy attempted to redefine the Canadian government’s relationship with its Aboriginal peoples, expressing the centrality of the government in Aboriginal affairs and reinforcing its obliviousness to the needs of Canada’s First Nations. The White Paper proposed to remove “Indian Status” for Aboriginals, and as a result was vehemently rejected. The effects of the proposed revocation of Status Indians persisted through the social activism and awareness that it inspired. This paper traces the development British- Aboriginal relations following the fall of New France. Diplomacy and treaty-making in the prelude to the White Paper will be considered, along with the changing conception of “Indian Status” throughout Canadian history. Thus, this paper argues that although the White Paper was a necessary step in the realization of the dire condition of Aboriginals in Canada, it did not provoke any lasting government policies that recognized absolute Aboriginal rights and liberties.

The Visual Governance of Canadian Migration Agencies

Despite increasing attention to images in the study of world politics, the role of visual representations in transnational governance processes in general and migration governance, in particular, has received less attention. This paper aims to fill this gap by examining the visual representation of migration governance by the two Canadian government institutions responsible for it: Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) and the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA). Through a multi-modal analysis of their X (formerly Twitter) images, the paper shows how they tend to shy away from a visual representation of people on the move, privileging a technical communication in an aspiration toward a “neutral” representation of migration issues. Secondly, it sheds light on the discrepancies between the policies directed toward Afghani and Ukrainian refugees and the unexpectedly undifferentiated visual communication about the two groups. Finally, the paper explores what the pictures accompanying X (formerly Twitter) posts of IRCC and CBSA can tell about how these government institutions represent themselves. Findings showed that government institutions’ esthetic practices are not always in line with the institutional migration policies and text narratives, suggesting that different government implementation tools (i.e., regulations, practices, textual discourses) may not reinforce each other but advance alternative perspectives.

A Typology of National Park Co-management Agreements in the Era of Reconciliation in Canada

Parks Canada, in response to commitments undertaken towards reconciliation, has signaled its readiness to reassess the participation of Indigenous peoples in the co-management of national parks, national park reserves, and national marine conservation areas (NMCAs). However, the effectiveness of co-management, as the established framework underpinning these and other longstanding partnerships between the state and Indigenous groups, has been disputed, based on an uneven track record in meeting the needs, interests, and aspirations of Indigenous communities. This paper explores the potential of co-management to facilitate reconciliation within national parks, reserves and NMCAs by developing a typology of various types of co-management agreements. Addressing a critical knowledge gap in co-management governance, we provide a comprehensive review of 23 negotiated co-management agreements involving the state and Indigenous groups in a national park context. The resulting typology categorizes these agreements according to contextual factors and governance arrangements, offering insights into the feasibility of shared governance approaches with Parks Canada. Moreover, it identifies the strengths and weaknesses of co-management agreements in fulfilling reconciliation commitments. Our findings indicate that, although Parks Canada has implemented innovative approaches to co-management and shown a willingness to support Indigenous-led conservation efforts, true shared governance with Indigenous groups, as defined by international standards, is limited by the Canadian government's evident reluctance to amend the foundational legislation to effectively share authority in national parks.

Nudging the nudger: Performance feedback and organ donor registrations

In a randomized controlled trial conducted in three waves over 2.5 years and involving nearly 700 customer-service representatives (CSRs) from a Canadian government service agency, we studied how providing CSRs with repeated performance feedback, with or without peer comparison, affected their subsequent organ donor registration rates. The feedback resulted in a 25 % increase in daily signups compared to otherwise equivalent encouragements and reminders. Adding benchmark information about peer performance did not amplify or diminish this effect. We observed increased registration rates for both high and low performers. A post-intervention survey indicates that CSRs in all conditions found the information included in the treatments helpful and motivating, and that signing up organ donors makes their job more meaningful. We also found suggestive evidence that performance feedback with benchmark information was the most motivating and created the least pressure to perform.