California Elementary Schools Research Articles

Not all fun and games: Disparities in school recess persist, and must be addressed

School recess is an evidence-backed approach to increase school-based opportunities for students to play, accrue necessary physical activity, and socialize with peers, to the benefit of their physical, academic, and socioemotional health. As such, the Centers for Disease Control recommend at least 20 min of daily recess in elementary schools. However, unequal provision of recess contributes to persistent health and academic disparities for students, which remain to be addressed. We analyzed data from the 2021–22 school year from a sample of low-income (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Education-eligible) elementary schools (n = 153) across California. Just 56 % of schools reported providing more than 20 min of recess daily. Differences in daily recess provision were apparent, with students in larger and lower-income schools receiving less daily recess than students in smaller and higher income schools. These findings support the enactment of legislation mandating health-sufficient daily recess in California elementary schools. They also highlight the importance of, and need for, annually-collected data sources to enable monitoring of recess provision, and potential disparities, over time, in order to assist in identifying additional interventions to address this public health problem.

DEVELOPING EQUITABLE ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM PLACEMENT ROUTINES

The annual assignment of elementary students from one classroom to the next is a ubiquitous cycle in schools. Since student class assignment has an effect on students’ educational trajectory, understanding how placement procedures impact student equity is an important area of research with benefits for all stakeholders. In this action research project, survey data was collected to examine what student data points teachers found most meaningful as well as what elements participants considered the most effective and the least beneficial components of the previous piloted placement procedures at a central California elementary school. The findings of this research demonstrated that respondents valued intervention data, such as English Language Proficiency Assessments for California (ELPAC) levels or special education (SPED) status, English Language Arts (ELA)/Math achievement data, and behavior data. However, they also expressed hesitancy over certain narrative or subjective information. Respondents also reported that, while multi-grade level cooperation was a valuable component of the placement process, the procedures needed to be more clearly systematized. Findings suggest that by linking placement procedures to existing Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) structures, the placement process can more effectively address issues of student equity and achievement.

Effective Instructional Leadership Practices in High Performing Elementary Schools

The purpose of this study was to investigate the connection between principals’ instructional practices and student achievement. A phenomenological case study examined 13 Title I elementary schools in central California that exhibited a) a high percentage of students from poverty, b) higher than average state assessment results, and c) principals that remained in their schools for 3 years or more during the same time period. The study analyzed instructional leadership practices (ILP) and the monitoring tools used by the principals and its effect on student achievement. The impact of this study provides a model for ILP of principals that can be incorporated into their daily habits that provide opportunities for instructional changes that can lead to increased student achievement.

Effect of school-based body mass index reporting in California public schools: a randomized clinical trial

Importance Annually, US schools screen millions of students’ body mass index (BMI) and report the results to parents, with little experimental evidence on potential benefits and harms. Objective To determine the impact of school-based BMI reporting on weight status and adverse outcomes (weight stigmatization and weight-related perceptions and behaviors) among a diverse student population. Design, Setting, and Participants Cluster randomized clinical trial. The Fit Study (2014-2017) randomized 79 California schools to BMI screening and reporting (group 1), BMI screening only (group 2), or control (no BMI screening or reporting [group 3]) in grades 3 to 8. The setting was California elementary and middle schools. Students in grades 3 to 7 at baseline participated for up to 3 years. A modified intent-to-treat protocol was used. Data analysis was conducted from April 13, 2017, to March 26, 2020. Interventions School staff assessed BMI each spring among students in groups 1 and 2. Parents of students in group 1 were sent a BMI report each fall for up to 2 years. Main Outcomes and Measures Changes in BMIzscore and in adverse outcomes (based on surveys conducted each fall among students in grades 4 to 8) from baseline to 1 and 2 years of follow-up. Results A total of 28 641 students (14 645 [51.1%] male) in grades 3 to 7 at baseline participated in the study for up to 3 years. Among 6534 of 16 622 students with a baseline BMI in the 85th percentile or higher (39.3%), BMI reporting had no effect on BMIzscore change (−0.003; 95% CI, −0.02 to 0.01 at 1 year and 0.01; 95% CI, −0.02 to 0.03 at 2 years). Weight dissatisfaction increased more among students having BMI screened at school (8694 students in groups 1 and 2) than among control participants (5674 students in group 3). Results of the effect of BMI reporting on other adverse outcomes were mixed: compared with the control (group 3), among students weighed at school (groups 1 and 2), weight satisfaction declined more after 2 years (−0.11; 95% CI, −0.18 to −0.05), and peer weight talk increased more after 1 year (0.05; 95% CI, 0.01-0.09); however, concerning weight control behaviors declined more after 1 year (−0.06; 95% CI, −0.10 to −0.02). Conclusions and Relevance Body mass index reports alone do not improve children’s weight status and may decrease weight satisfaction. To improve student health, schools should consider investing resources in evidence-based interventions. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier:NCT02088086

The Mission Project: Teaching History and Avoiding the Past in California Elementary Schools

In this article, Harper B. Keenan investigates the treatment of violence in elementary history education through a case study of a fourth-grade unit on the colonial history of California featuring “the mission project,” a long-standing tradition in California’s elementary schools that has students construct a miniature model of a Spanish colonial mission. Grounded in broader social and historical contexts, the study explores how the use of model making invites children to engage with colonial history and what the assignment reveals about how adults teach children about the violent past. Keenan argues that the mission project perpetuates a societal pattern of “ritual avoidance.”

Are There Peer Effects from English Learners in Elementary Schools? Evidence from an IV Approach

Abstract We study the peer effects of English Learners on the test scores of native English speaking students using a new instrument to account for the endogeneity of students’ English Learner status. Relative to what OLS estimates would suggest, we find smaller and insignificant peer effects of English Learners on native English speaking students in California elementary schools.

Effect of School-Based Body Mass Index Reporting in California Public Schools

Annually, US schools screen millions of students' body mass index (BMI) and report the results to parents, with little experimental evidence on potential benefits and harms. To determine the impact of school-based BMI reporting on weight status and adverse outcomes (weight stigmatization and weight-related perceptions and behaviors) among a diverse student population. Cluster randomized clinical trial. The Fit Study (2014-2017) randomized 79 California schools to BMI screening and reporting (group 1), BMI screening only (group 2), or control (no BMI screening or reporting [group 3]) in grades 3 to 8. The setting was California elementary and middle schools. Students in grades 3 to 7 at baseline participated for up to 3 years. A modified intent-to-treat protocol was used. Data analysis was conducted from April 13, 2017, to March 26, 2020. School staff assessed BMI each spring among students in groups 1 and 2. Parents of students in group 1 were sent a BMI report each fall for up to 2 years. Changes in BMI z score and in adverse outcomes (based on surveys conducted each fall among students in grades 4 to 8) from baseline to 1 and 2 years of follow-up. A total of 28 641 students (14 645 [51.1%] male) in grades 3 to 7 at baseline participated in the study for up to 3 years. Among 6534 of 16 622 students with a baseline BMI in the 85th percentile or higher (39.3%), BMI reporting had no effect on BMI z score change (-0.003; 95% CI, -0.02 to 0.01 at 1 year and 0.01; 95% CI, -0.02 to 0.03 at 2 years). Weight dissatisfaction increased more among students having BMI screened at school (8694 students in groups 1 and 2) than among control participants (5674 students in group 3). Results of the effect of BMI reporting on other adverse outcomes were mixed: compared with the control (group 3), among students weighed at school (groups 1 and 2), weight satisfaction declined more after 2 years (-0.11; 95% CI, -0.18 to -0.05), and peer weight talk increased more after 1 year (0.05; 95% CI, 0.01-0.09); however, concerning weight control behaviors declined more after 1 year (-0.06; 95% CI, -0.10 to -0.02). Body mass index reports alone do not improve children's weight status and may decrease weight satisfaction. To improve student health, schools should consider investing resources in evidence-based interventions. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02088086.

School-Level Factors Associated with Sun Protection Practices in California Elementary Schools.

This study examined implementation of district sun safety policy in schools and tested correlates of implementation in California public school districts. Principals (N = 118) and teachers (N = 113) in California public elementary schools (N = 118) were recruited and completed a survey on sun protection policies and practices. The sample contained schools whose districts subscribed to the California School Boards Association and adopted Board Policy 5141.7 for sun safety. Principals and teachers reported on implementation of 10 school practices related to BP 5141.7 indicating which practices were implemented in the school. Years in public education (Exponentiated Score (ES) = 0.51, p < .001), years worked in the current district (ES = 0.49, p < .001), perception that parents should take action to protect children from the sun (ES = 0.43, p < .01), and personal skin phenotype (Low Risk ES = 0.55; High Risk ES = 0.09, p < .05) were associated with number of practices implemented in the school using multiple Poisson regression. Policy implementation is more likely among schools with experienced faculty, when parents are seen as important partners in student skin cancer prevention, and when school principals and teachers have a lower personal risk phenotype.

Economic Evaluation of a Sun Protection Promotion Program in California Elementary Schools.

An economic evaluation of Sun Safe Schools intervention designed to aid California elementary schools with implementing sun safety practices consistent with local board-approved policy. Program cost analysis: intervention delivery and practice implementation. California elementary schools (58 interventions and 60 controls). Principals at 52 intervention and 53 control schools provided complete implementation data. Principals completing pre-/postintervention surveys assessing practice implementation. Phone-based 45-minute session with a project coach on practice implementation, follow-up e-mails/phone contacts, $500 mini-grant. Schools chose from a list of 10 practices for implementation: ultraviolet monitoring, clothing, hats, and/or sunscreen recommendations, outdoor shade, class education, staff training and/or modeling, parent outreach, and resource allocation. The duration of intervention was 20 months. Rolling recruitment/intervention: February 2014 to December 2017. Intervention delivery and practice implementation costs. Correlations of school demographics and administrator beliefs with costs. Intervention delivery activities micro-costed. Implemented practices assessed using costing template. Intervention schools: 234 implemented practices, control schools: 157. Twenty-month delivery costs: $29 310; $16 653 (per school: $320) for project staff, mostly mini-grants and coaching time. Administrator costs: $12 657 (per school: $243). Per-student delivery costs: $1.01. Costs of implemented practices: $641 843 for intervention schools (per-school mean: $12 343, median: $6 969); $496 365 for controls (per-school mean: $9365, median: $3123). Delivery costs correlated with implemented practices (0.37, P < .01) and total practice costs (0.37, P < .05). Implemented practices correlated with principal beliefs about the importance of skin cancer prevention to student health (0.46, P < .001) and parents (0.45, P < .001). Coaching of elementary school personnel can stimulate sun safety practice implementation at a reasonable cost. Findings can assist schools in implementing appropriate sun safety practices.

Cultural influence on mindful eating: traditions and values as experienced by Mexican-American and non-Hispanic white parents of elementary-school children.

To examine perceptions of mindful eating and mindful food parenting among parents of elementary school children. Four focus groups were conducted with 19 Mexican-American parents and 13 non-Hispanic white parents of children from a northern California elementary school. Themes emerging from this research included food traditions during mealtime, perceptions of mindful eating, mindful food parenting and portion control, mindful food parenting practices through gardening, and mindful food parenting with traditional foods. Mexican-American participants identified cooking traditional foods as an important part of their mindful eating and food parenting practices. Mexican-American participants also highlighted the importance of using their senses to appreciate food. Both Mexican-American and non-Hispanic white participants emphasized the importance of involving children in gardening and meal preparation. Mexican-American parents had different perceptions of food portion control than the non-Hispanic white participants. The current study indicates the importance of mindfulness in broad food-related practices such as gardening, cooking and preserving food traditions in mindful eating practices. More research is needed to further understand how culture shapes and impacts these food practices among different cultural groups.

Physical Education and Physical Activity Policies as Described on California Charter School Websites

Objectives: Nearly all US schools have a website that enables them to inform about and promote physical activity (PA) and physical education (PE). We performed a cross-sectional content analysis of California (state with the most charters) elementary charter school websites' PA/PE content. Methods: We analyzed data (N = 520 schools) using descriptive statistics and cross tabulations to identify associations among school characteristics and the mentioning of PE, PE curriculum, PE teacher, recess, interscholastic sport, and other extracurricular PA. Results: Over a third (39%) of websites did not mention providing either PA or PE opportunities at all. Only 30.6% of websites mentioned PE (mandated by state education code to be delivered for 200 min/10 days to students in grades 1-6). Websites also infrequently mentioned Fitnessgram scores (36.5%), required by state education code to be reported for 5th graders, as well as recess (30.2%), other extracurricular PA (20.4%), and interscholastic sport (16.5%). Conclusions: Schools did not use the full potential of their websites to inform constituents about PA or to promote it on campus. Deficient schools should expand the PE/PA content information available on their websites and be held accountable for such by their parent school district..

Are California Elementary School Test Scores More Strongly Associated With Urban Trees Than Poverty?

Unprecedented rates of urbanization are changing our understanding of the ways in which children build connections to the natural world, including the importance of educational settings in affecting this relationship. In addition to influencing human-nature connection, greenspace around school grounds has been associated with benefits to students’ cognitive function. Questions remain regarding the size of this benefit relative to other factors, and which features of greenspace are responsible for these effects. We conducted a large-scale correlative study subsampling elementary schools (n = 495) in ecologically, socially and economically diverse California. After controlling for common educational determinants (e.g., socio-economic status, race/ethnicity, student teacher ratio, and gender ratio) we found a significant, positive association between test scores and tree and shrub cover within 750 and 1000 m of urban schools. Tree and shrub cover was not associated with test scores in rural schools or five buffers closer to urban schools (10, 50, 100, 300, and 500 m). Two other greenspace variables (NDVI and agricultural area) were not associated with test performance at any of the analyzed buffer distances for rural or urban schools. Minority representation had the largest effect size on standardized test scores (8.1% difference in scores with 2SD difference in variable), followed by tree and shrub cover around urban schools, which had a large effect size (2.9–3.0% at 750 and 1000 m) with variance from minority representation and socioeconomic status (effect size 2.4%) included. Within our urban sample, average tree-cover schools performed 4.2% (3.9–4.4, and 95% CI) better in terms of standardized test scores than low tree-cover urban schools. Our findings support the conclusion that neighborhood-scale (750–1000 m) urban tree and shrub cover is associated with school performance, and indicate that this element of greenspace may be an important factor to consider when studying the cognitive impacts of the learning environment. These results support the design of experimental tests of tree planting interventions for educational benefits.

Teens-as-teachers nutrition program increases interest in science among schoolchildren and fosters self-efficacy in teens

The Healthy Living Ambassador Program brings health, teen leadership, and teamwork to California's elementary school gardens through interdisciplinary UC Cooperative Extension collaboration, community-based partnerships and teen teaching. During spring 2015, teen ambassadors trained by Extension educators and volunteers at UC Elkus Ranch in San Mateo County taught nutrition science, food cultivation and healthy living skills in an 8-week, garden-based, after-school nutrition and physical education program for elementary school children in an urban setting. We conducted a pilot study using a mixed-methods approach to measure and explore the program's impact on children's vegetable selection and consumption preferences, as well as perceived self-efficacy in teen healthy living behavior. The children trended toward an increased preference for gardening, cooking and science, and teens displayed an increase in perceived health self-efficacy.

Accuracy of Principal and Teacher Knowledge of School District Policies on Sun Protection in California Elementary Schools.

IntroductionPolicy is a key aspect of school-based efforts to prevent skin cancer. We explored the extent and accuracy of knowledge among principals and teachers in California public school districts about the elements specified in their district’s written sun safety policy.MethodsThe sample consisted of California public school districts that subscribed to the California School Boards Association, had an elementary school, adopted Board Policy 5141.7 for sun safety, and posted it online. The content of each policy was coded. Principals (n = 118) and teachers (n = 113) in elementary schools were recruited from September 2013 through December 2015 and completed a survey on sun protection policies and practices from January 2014 through April 2016.ResultsOnly 38 of 117 principals (32.5%) were aware that their school district had a sun protection policy. A smaller percentage of teachers (13 of 109; 11.9%) than principals were aware of the policy (F 108 = 12.76, P < .001). We found greater awareness of the policy among principals and teachers who had more years of experience working in public education (odds ratio [OR] = 1.05, F 106 = 4.71, P = .03) and worked in schools with more non-Hispanic white students (OR = 7.65, F 109 = 8.61, P = .004) and fewer Hispanic students (OR = 0.28, F 109 = 4.27, P = .04).ConclusionPolicy adoption is an important step in implementing sun safety practices in schools, but districts may need more effective means of informing school principals and teachers of sun safety policies. Implementation will lag without clear understanding of the policy’s content by school personnel.

Your Children Mite Not be Safe at School: An Outbreak of Biting Rat Mites at a Southern California Elementary School Campus

During May, 2017, the Orange County Mosquito and Vector Control District (OCMVCD) received anonymous calls from distressed school staff and parents of children attending an elementary school (Villa Park Elementary School, VPES) in Orange County, California, about an outbreak of pruritic dermatitis that was believed to be caused by biting arthropods. The incident received intense media coverage and led to a partial closure of the campus. With no identified culprit, OCMVCD interviewed VPES staff and surveyed the school property for vertebrate pests and their ectoparasites to determine the source of the outbreak. After thorough inspections of the exterior and interior of classrooms and a carefully-placed, glue-board trap survey, OCMVCD detected signs of significant roof rat activity (feces, rub marks, and harborage sites) throughout the campus and the presence of rat mites inside multiple classrooms. OCMVCD worked with other governmental agencies (Orange County Health Care’s Environmental Health, California Department of Pesticide Regulation’s School Integrated Pest Management Program, local city officials) and the VPES administration to educate parents about the vertebrate pests on the school grounds and the complexities of controlling the rat mite infestation during the school year. OCMVCD also identified deficiencies in the school’s pest control program and developed an integrated vector management plan to address the immediate and long-term health threats to prevent rodent and rat mite outbreaks in the future. This report details the investigation and methodology used to locate and eradicate the vertebrate and ectoparasite threats on the VPES campus and the challenges encountered during the process.

Sun Protection Policies in Public School Districts With Elementary Schools in California

This study examines sun safety policies and deviation from a 2005-disseminated sample policy among member districts of the California School Boards Association.

Child Health in Elementary School Following California’s Paid Family Leave Program.

We evaluate changes in elementary school children health outcomes following the introduction of California’s Paid Family Leave (PFL) program, which provided parents with paid time off following the birth of a child. Our health outcomes--overweight, ADHD, and hearing-related problems--are characterized by diagnosis rates that only pick up during early elementary school. Moreover, our health outcomes have been found to be negatively linked with many potential implications of extended maternity leave--increased breastfeeding, prompt medical checkups at infancy, reduced prenatal stress, and reduced non-parental care during infancy. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Studies (ECLS) within a difference-in-differences framework, our results suggest improvements in health outcomes among California elementary school children following PFL’s introduction. Furthermore, the improvements are driven by children from less advantaged backgrounds, which is consistent with the notion that California’s PFL had the greatest effect on leave-taking duration after childbirth mostly for less advantaged mothers who previously could not afford to take unpaid leave.

Inverse relationship between urban green space and childhood autism in California elementary school districts

Green space has a variety of health benefits. However, little is known about its impact on autism, the fastest-growing neurodevelopmental disorder in children. This study examined the relationship between green space and childhood autism prevalence. Autism count data in 2010 were obtained for 543 of ~560 public elementary school districts in California. Multiple types of green space were measured in each school district, including percentages of forest, grassland, and average tree canopy and near-road tree canopy. Their associations with autism prevalence were evaluated with negative binomial regression models and spatial regression models. We observed inverse associations between several green space metrics and autism prevalence in school districts with high road density, the highly urbanized areas, but not in others. According to negative binomial regression models, adjusted rate ratios (RR) for the relationships in these school districts between autism prevalence and green space metrics in 10% increments were as follows: for forest, RR=0.90 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.84–0.95); for grassland, RR=0.90 (95% CI: 0.83–0.97); for average tree canopy, RR=0.89 (95% CI: 0.83–0.95), and for near-road tree canopy, RR=0.81 (95% CI: 0.73–0.91). These results suggest that increases of 10% in forest, grassland, average tree canopy and near-road tree canopy are associated with a decrease in autism prevalence of 10%, 10% 11% and 19%, respectively. In contrast, urban land and road density were positively associated with autism prevalence. The results of spatial regression models were consistent with those obtained by negative binomial models, except for grassland. Our study suggests that green space, specifically tree cover in areas with high road density, may influence autism prevalence in elementary school children beneficially. Further studies are needed to investigate a potential causal relationship, and the major mechanisms that may underlie the beneficial associations with green space, such as buffering traffic-related air pollution and noise.

School Opportunity Hoarding? Racial Segregation and Access to High Growth Schools.

Persistent school segregation may allow advantaged groups to hoard educational opportunities and consign minority students to lower-quality educational experiences. Although minority students are concentrated in low-achieving schools, relatively little previous research directly links segregation to measures of school quality based on student achievement growth, which more plausibly reflect learning opportunities. Using a dataset of public elementary schools in California, this study provides the first analysis detailing the distribution of a growth-based measure of school quality using standard inequality indices, allowing disparities to be decomposed across geographic and organizational scales. We find mixed support for the school opportunity hoarding hypothesis. We find small White and Asian advantages in access to high-growth schools, but most of the inequality in exposure to school growth is within racial groups. Growth-based disparities both between and within groups tend to be on a more local scale than disparities in absolute achievement levels, focusing attention on within-district policies to mitigate school-based inequalities in opportunities to learn.

Impact of the Shaping Healthy Choices Program on Students’ Lunchtime Fruit and Vegetable Consumption: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Multi‐Component School‐Based Nutrition Intervention

Most youth in the US do not consume recommended levels of fruits and vegetables. Multi‐component school‐based interventions are encouraged as a strategy to improve these dietary behaviors, but further evaluation of such programs is needed to assess their impact. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of the Shaping Healthy Choices Program (SHCP) on lunchtime fruit and vegetable intake, as part of a randomized controlled trial of this multicomponent nutrition education intervention. Two Northern California elementary schools were randomly assigned to control or intervention treatments. Fruit and vegetable selection, consumption, and waste from school lunches were determined at the start (fall 2012, pre‐test) and end (spring 2013, post‐test) of the implementation year using digital imaging, a plate waste method. Each fourth‐grade classroom was observed over 2–3 days within each time point. Students were included in analyses when complete fruit (n=39 control, n=72 intervention) and/or vegetable (n=39 control, n=73 intervention) data were collected on at least two days within each time point. Exact tests examined associations between school and number of students consuming no fruits and vegetables within each time point. Changes in quantities selected, consumed, and wasted were compared between schools using t‐tests and Mann‐Whitney U‐tests. Similar percentages of students consumed no vegetables at pre‐test (49% control, 47% intervention), but fewer intervention (29%) than control (72%) students consumed no vegetables at post‐test. Vegetable consumption among intervention students significantly increased relative to changes among control students (P=0.008), and percentage waste from vegetables decreased among intervention students relative to control (P=0.020). Approximately 20% of students consumed no fruit at post‐test in both schools (ns), although more intervention (26%) than control (10%) students consumed no fruit at pre‐test (P=0.052). There were no significant differences in changes in quantities of fruit selected, consumed, or wasted. Overall, the SHCP successfully improved dietary behaviors related to vegetable, but not fruit, consumption. Given the wide variability in fruit and vegetable consumption, as well as the large proportion of students consuming no vegetables, an objective for future research should be to examine other factors that may help predict these dietary behaviors and their malleability.Support or Funding InformationFunding was provided by UCANR competitive grant #11‐1018, USDA 2011‐38420‐20082, and USDA NIFA Hatch project 221082.