Calcium Soaps Research Articles

Using FT-IR as a fast method to measure fatty acid soaps in in vivo and in vitro digests.

The objective of the current study was to develop a simple method to measure fatty acid soaps, making use of FT-IR, representative for the soap formation observed in clinical trials. Calcium soaps have a unique coordination which leads to a typical double-splitting of the antisymmetric and symmetric carboxylate peaks. Absorbance values of these carboxylate peaks were used together with the absorbance of the hydrocarbon -CH2 antisymmetric and symmetric peaks to calculate the calcium soap absorbance. Based on the linear correlation between the calcium soap absorbance and the calcium soap concentration measured with GC-FID, a model was set-up and subsequently successfully validated to quantify calcium soap concentrations in faecal samples from clinical trials with this FT-IR method. With in vivo as well as in vitro digestion an inverse correlation between the long chain saturated fatty acid part of milk fat containing fat blends used for the infant formulas, and the formation of fatty acid soaps after digestion and defaecation could be observed. There is a clear link between the amount of long chain saturated fatty acids at the sn-1/3 position and their release as free fatty acid after lipolysis with the appearance of fatty acid soaps. These insights enable future development of fat blends for infant nutrition to optimize fatty acid soap formation and thereby gut discomfort in infants. These insights can be used to predict the soap formation capacity of a newly designed fat blend and thereby the improvement of infant nutrition products.

Montmorillonite restricts free fatty acid liberation and alters self-assembled structures formed during in vitro lipid digestion

The global rise in obesity necessitates innovative weight loss strategies. Naturally occurring smectite clays, such as montmorillonite (MMT), offer promise due to their unique properties that interfere with free fatty acid (FFA) liberation, reducing systemic uptake. However, the mechanisms of MMT-FFA interactions and their implications for weight management are undefined. This study investigates these interactions by adding MMT (10 % w/w) to in vitro lipolysis media containing medium chain triglycerides (MCTs), and monitoring FFA liberation using pH-stat titration. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and synchrotron-based small-angle X-ray scattering (sSAXS) observed time-dependent structural changes, while electron microscopy examined clay morphology during digestion. A 35 % reduction in FFA liberation occurred after 25 min of digestion with MCT + MMT, with digestion kinetics following a biphasic model driven by calcium soap formation. NTA revealed a 17-fold decrease in vesicular structures with MCT + MMT, and sSAXS highlighted a rapid lamellar phase evolution linked to calcium soap formation. This acceleration is attributed to MMT's adsorption to unionized FFAs via hydrogen bonding, supported by TEM images showing a decrease in d-spacing, indicating FFA intercalation is not the main adsorption mechanism. These findings highlight MMT's potential as a novel intervention for reducing dietary lipid absorption in obesity and metabolic diseases.

Supplementation Effect of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Oil Calcium Soap on Physiological Responses and Hematology of Male Garut Sheep

Supplementation Effect of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Oil Calcium Soap on Physiological Responses and Hematology of Male Garut Sheep

Evaluation of a novel palm-free fat supplement to reduce the carbon footprint of diets for dairy cows

Most fat supplements added to dairy diets are derived from palm acid oil or palm fatty acid distillate. There are environmental concerns about palm oil production due to deforestation and high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The objective of this study was to evaluate a palm-free fat supplement, Envirolac. Envirolac contains vegetable oils, marine oils and glycerine encapsulated within a cellulosic fibre-clay mineral carrier matrix. The carrier matrix has small particle size to facilitate rapid rumen passage and minimal interference with rumen digestion. Fifty cows were divided into two balanced groups of 25 cows. Each group received Control (calcium soap of palm fatty acid distilate, 0.5 kg/d) and Envirolac (0.5 kg/d) diets in a crossover design with two feeding periods of four weeks duration, so that each cow received both diets. Envirolac has a lower total fat concentration than the calcium soap, so the feeding rate delivered less total fat. When fed on Envirolac, cows yielded more milk 40.7 v 40.1 kg/d), energy-corrected milk (ECM; 42.9 v 41.3 kg/d) and milk components (1605 v 1514 g fat, 1239 v 1199 g protein, 1871 v 1839 g lactose, per day), and produced milk with higher concentrations of fat (40.1 v 38.6 g/kg) and protein (30.7 v 30.1 g/kg), than when fed on Control. When fed on Envirolac, cows produced milk with higher concentrations of fatty acids (FA) synthesised de novo in the mammary gland (25.5 v 23.6 g/100 g total FA), lower concentration of palmitic acid (35.5 v 37.2 g/100 g total FA), and higher concentrations of some long-chain fatty acids (C20:0, C20:1, C20:3n3, C21:0, C22:0, C22:6n3 and C23:0), than when fed on Control. There was no effect of treatment on dry matter intake (DMI; mean 23.4 kg/d), so feed efficiency was higher (1.83 v 1.76 kg ECM/kg DMI) for Envirolac than Control. There was no effect of treatment on dry matter digestibility (0.73), methane production (433 g/d), methane yield (19.3 g/kg DMI) or methane intensity (10.9 g/kg ECM). Feed carbon footprint of Envirolac was calculated to be 1028 g CO2eq/kg DM, which is 0.46 of the value for a calcium soap (2830 g CO2eq/kg DM), and reduced feed carbon footprint per kg ECM milk production by 11 %. This study demonstrates that Envirolac can replace palm-based fat supplements in dairy diets to improve feed efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint of milk production.

The addition of calcium soap in the ration on the performance, carcass and abdominal fat of native chickens

This study aims to examine the effect of adding calcium soap (Ca-PFAD) to feed on performance, carcass and abdominal fat in native chickens. A total of two hundred and forty 6 week old native chickens were obtained from commercial native chicken farming with an average body weight of 662.52±21.75 g. All chickens were kept in a room with controlled environment. A total of 240 native chickens were divided randomly into four treatments, namely control feed without Ca-PFAD supplement as control (C0); feed supplemented with 2% Ca-PFAD (C1); added feed with 4% Ca-PFAD (C2); and diet supplemented with 6% Ca-PFAD. All diets were isocaloric and isonitrogen. Each treatment had six replications and each replication had 60 chickens. The results showed that the addition of 2-4% Ca-PFAD in feed significantly (P<0.05) improved performance, carcasses, carcass percentage and carcass meat percentage. The amount of pad fat and abdominal fat in chickens decreased significantly (P<0.05) with the addition of 2% Ca-PFAD in the feed. It can be concluded that the addition of 2% calcium soap (Ca-PFAD) in feed can improve performance and carcass quality in native chickens, on the other hand it can reduce the amount of abdominal fat.

Impact of the inclusion of calcium soap in feed on intestinal histology and blood lipid profile of native chickens

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of the inclusion of calcium soap in feed on the intestinal histology and blood lipid profile of native chickens. This study used 192 native chickens aged 6 weeks with homogeneous body weight which were randomized into 4 types of treatment and 6 replications and each replication used 48 chickens with homogeneous body weight. The four types of treatment were: Group of chickens fed without the addition of Ca-PFAD as a control (chicken Group A); chicken feed with the addition of 2% Ca-PFAD (chicken Group B); chicken feed with the addition of 4% Ca-PFAD (chicken Group C); and chicken feed with the addition of 6% Ca-PFAD (chicken Group D). The results showed that the height of the jejunal villi in chicken groups C and D was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the control (chicken group A). Likewise, the depth of the jejunum crypts of Group C and D chickens was significantly (P<0.05) deeper than that of Group A chickens. The inclusion of 2-6% Ca-PFAD in the feed significantly (P<0.05) improved the blood lipid profile of native chickens. It was concluded that administration of calcium soap (Ca-PFAD) in feed can increase the height of the villi and the depth of the crypts of the intestinal jejunum. On the other hand, at the 4% level, giving calcium soap in feed can reduce cholesterol and Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) levels, as well as increase triglyceride and High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) levels in native chicken.

Experimental study of frictional behaviour of powdered soaps for wire drawing

Better understanding of frictional behaviour of powdered soaps used in dry wire drawing can lead to improvements in wire quality and large savings in energy consumption. The latter is particularly significant given the colossal amounts of energy expended in wire drawing processes. However, there is currently a very limited understanding of the subject, including a lack of quantitative data on soap friction. This is at least in part likely to be due to complex tribological behaviour of the powdered soaps, which is very different from that of lubricating oils. This paper studies frictional behaviour of sodium and calcium powdered soaps, using a ball-on-disc tribometer (ETM rig) incorporating a powder ‘scoop’, and under contact conditions pertinent to die-wire contact in wire drawing. Tests employed a WC ball and C15E steel disc to mimic die and wire materials respectively. Results show that under high sliding conditions, friction coefficient with powered soaps is remarkably low, at 0.03 and 0.04 for sodium and calcium soaps respectively. Friction generally decreased with increasing contact pressure and sliding speed. Post-test analysis of ETM specimens showed the presence of thick soap layers on the rubbed surfaces. However, in ETM tests friction was observed to sharply increase leading to the onset of scuffing, soon after the supply of soap to the contact was interrupted, suggesting that any solid deposited layers are easily removed and cannot exclusively explain the low friction. The observed trends suggest that low soap friction may be due to the ability of the soaps to form low shear stress lubricating films at high contact temperatures which are associated with the harsh conditions of high-speed and high-pressure. The results provide new insights into the frictional behaviour of powdered soaps which can be used to optimise the wire drawing processes as well as a direct input to wire deformation models.

Effect of protected fatty acid supplementation on ovarian activity, reproductive hormone profiles and reproduction of Barki ewes under semiarid conditions

Abstract. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the impact of dietary supplementation with rumen-protected fat (calcium soaps of fatty acids, CSFA) and/or hormonal superovulation using equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) on ovarian activity, changes in ovarian hormones, and reproductive performance in Barki ewes under semiarid conditions. A total of 39 non-pregnant Barki ewes, with an average body weight of 34.7 ± 0.25 kg and an average age of 3–4 years, were divided into four groups. The first group (9 ewes) served as the control, while the second group (10 ewes) received double doses of PGF2α, administered 9 d apart, and was superovulated with 600 IU (international unit) eCG. The third group (10 ewes) was supplemented with 30 g per head per day of rumen-protected fat. The fourth group (10 ewes) underwent the same superovulation protocol as the second group and was also supplemented with 30 g per head per day of rumen-protected fat. All the ewes were fed a basal diet. Ovarian activity was detected using ultrasonography during the estrus phase in all the groups, after which all the ewes were naturally bred with Barki rams. The results demonstrated significant (P<0.05) increases in estradiol 17-β (E2) and progesterone (P4) levels in the treated groups compared to the control group. Ewes in all the treated groups exhibited large follicles, with an overall mean diameter (≥5 mm) significantly higher than that of ewes in the control group. Although there were no significant differences between the treated and control groups, the ewes treated with CSFA and/or the eCG hormone showed tendencies to improve the reproductive traits of Barki ewes. Overall, the findings of this study demonstrated a positive effect of CSFA alone or in combination with an estrous synchronization protocol on ovarian activity in Barki ewes, as indicated by the number and size of follicles and the presence of large-sized follicles.

A “one‐pot” method for synthesizing zinc tryptophan and its derivatives as highly efficient PVC thermal stabilizer with excellent mechanical properties

AbstractZinc Tryptophan (Trp‐Zn) and zinc N‐(salicylic) tryptophan (SalTrp‐Zn) were synthesized from tryptophan, zinc acetate, and salicylic aldehyde by one‐pot method, respectively. The structure was analyzed by FT‐IR, 1H NMR, and elemental analysis. PVC samples were prepared by stirring method and solvent film process, and then the thermal properties of PVC samples were studied by thermal aging chamber test, Congo red test, electrical conductivity test, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The thermal stability of Trp‐Zn and SalTrp‐Zn stabilized PVC samples was better than calcium and zinc soaps used in industry. The thermal stability time was up to 80 min, and it was a long‐acting thermal stabilizer. After the addition of CaSt2 and Trp‐Zn stabilizer in different proportions, the thermal stability of PVC was obviously improved, and the initial whiteness of the film was improved after the combination of Trp‐Zn/SalTrp‐Zn. In addition, the tensile test verified that the PVC samples stabilized by Trp‐Zn and SalTrp‐Zn had the highest elongation at break. The addition of Trp‐Zn can reduce the elastic modulus of PVC, effectively improve the mechanical properties of PVC, and make the PVC film have better toughness and elasticity. Through DMA and EDS tests, it can be seen that Trp, SalTrp‐Zn had good compatibility with PVC and DOP. The quantum chemical calculation of Trp‐Zn, SalTrp‐Zn and vinyl chloride models was carried out, and the thermal stability mechanism of thermal stabilizer on PVC was analyzed accurately, mainly the absorption mechanism of HCl and the substitution mechanism of unstable chlorine atoms.

Effect of calcium soaps from garlic (Allium sativum) and willow (Salix babylonica) extracts on nematode loads, nutrient intake and digestibility, nitrogen balance and rumen fermentation kinetics in dairy goats.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of dietary calcium soaps from garlic (Allium sativum) and willow (Salix babylonica) extracts on nematode loads, nutrient intake and digestibility, nitrogen balance and rumen fermentation kinetics in dairy goats. Nine adult non-lactating Saanen goats were grouped into a complete randomized block design with 3 treatments (n = 3) over a period of 28 d. Animals were fed a diet based on alfalfa hay and a concentrate that was supplemented (65 g/kg DM) with calcium soaps of safflower (control), garlic or willow. Intake of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) were not affected by dietary calcium soaps. However, the highest digestibility of DM and OM were observed in willow supplemented goats. In vitro gas kinetics and fermentation profile were not affected by diets. Results from fecal egg count indicated a reduction in total count, Haemonchus spp. and Trychostrongylus spp. for both garlic and willow compared to control. Our results suggest that calcium soaps of garlic or willow extracts can be used to reduce gastrointestinal parasites in goats without compromising productive traits or rumen function.

In Operando Analysis of Milk-Based Oral Formulations during Digestion Using Synchrotron Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Coupled to Low-Frequency Raman Spectroscopy.

A low-frequency Raman (LFR) probe was coupled to an in-line small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) beamline to test the capabilities of a combinatory approach for the determination of lipid and drug behavior during the enzymatic lipolysis of milk-based oral formulations. Cinnarizine was used as the model drug, and its solubilization dynamics as well as its potential impact on the supramolecular structures formed by the digestion products of bovine milk were evaluated from the perspective of both techniques. The SAXS data were superior in distinguishing various liquid crystalline assemblies formed during the digestion process, with LFR providing complementary information regarding the formation of calcium soaps. On the other hand, studying changes in the LFR domain allowed the differentiation of drug solubilization and precipitation; processes that were less clear from the X-ray scattering data. Given the relative simplicity of the combined experimental setup, these results highlight the advantages that the combination of the two techniques can provide for understanding and developing new lipid-based formulations and will help to translate the results obtained at synchrotron facilities to routine analysis procedures in laboratory/industry-based environments.

An approach of the internal friction-dependent temperature changes for conventional and pure biogenic lubricating greases

This work investigated the temperature changes inside the bulk of lubricating greases under controlled high-shear stress conditions (250–500 s−1). For this purpose, a newly developed temperature-measuring cell called Calidus was successfully tested. The temperature changes (ΔT) have been related to the greases’ components (thickener, base oil-type, and composition) and the structural degradation of the lubricating greases. Furthermore, a theoretical approach was proposed for calculating the internal temperature change of lubricating greases during shear stress. All greases showed an internal temperature profile characterised by a sudden rise in ΔT within the first 4 h from starting the test and subsequent ΔT decay until it reaches the steady state value. Furthermore, it was found that greases C1 and C5, formulated with lithium and calcium soap, respectively, with different soap content (16.1 wt% and 9.7 wt%, respectively), but the same base castor oil, showed the highest value of the maximum ΔT, c.a. 3.2 K, and the most drastic drop of ΔT. These greases showed both the highest specific densities and heat capacities. In addition, they showed the lowest ratio of expended energies (Rtee), which means more structural degradation in the stressed grease. On the contrary, the grease C3, with 13 wt% of Li-soap but the lowest base oil’s viscosity, showed the lowest maximum ΔT and the temperature profile was characterised by a moderate variation of ΔT along the test. The biogenic grease B3 developed a low-temperature change in the group of pure bio-genic greases close to grease C3.

The effects of long-chain fatty acids supplemented to rations during the transition and early lactation periods on reproductive performance in Simmental cattle with low estrus signs

This study is based on the hypothesis that adding rumen bypass unsaturated fatty acids to rations during the transition and early lactation periods will reduce metabolic stress, milk fat synthesis, and milk fat concentration, increase the prevalence of estrus signs and fertilization rates and facilitate the implantation of the embryo. Thus, it was aimed to reveal the effects of calcium soap of long-chain fatty acids (CSFA) added to rations during the transition and early lactation periods in Simmental cattle with low estrus signs. Primiparous and multiparous Simmental cattle were used in the study. The animals were divided into two groups by random sampling, including 62 animals in the CSFA diet group and 44 animals in the basal ration (control; C) group. The modified Ovsynch protocol was used as the synchronization protocol. Pre-ovulatory follicle and uterine tension values were not significantly different between the CSFA and C groups (p>0.05). The rates of both the standing reflex and cervical mucus were greater in the CSFA group than in C (p<0.05). Conception rates on the 30th-35th and 60th-65th days were greater in the CSFA diet group than in C (p<0.05). Consequently, in this study, a positive correlation was identified between the appearance of estrus signs at the time of TAI application and conception outcomes. It was determined that supplementing 800 g/day CSFA to the rations of Simmental cattle with low rates of estrus signs in the transition and early lactation periods increased estrus signs and conception rates.

Characterization of Divalent Metal Soaps of Cannabis Sativa Seed Oil

In this study, the structural characteristics and thermal degradation behaviour of barium, calcium and zinc soaps of hemp seed oil prepared using the metathesis method are reported. Scanning electron micrographs of the metal soaps showed similar plate-like microstructures and are indicative of an orderly packed particulate structure. The bands at 1509, 1539 and 1543 cm-1 in the FTIR spectra showed the association of the carboxylate ion with Ba, Ca and Zn ions respectively The thermal decomposition consisted of one single step on the weight loss – temperature curves located around 250 – 450 oC for all the divalent metal soaps at the various heating rates and the observed loss in weight which occurred before 200 oC was minimal (&amp;lt; 10%). The average values of the apparent activation energy for the thermal process were 18.73, 13.77 and 8.48 kJ/mol for Zn-HSO, Ca-HSO and Ba-HSO respectively.

Effects of Black Soldier Fly oil and calcium soap supplementation on rumen fermentability of Garut Sheep

Fat is a source of energy for livestock, with low heat metabolic, but dietary fat had negative impact for rumen fermentation. Calcium soap can protect fat for ruminant. This study aimed to examine the characteristics of rumen fermentation in Garut sheep fed with suplements of BSF (Hermetia illucens) oil and BSF Calcium soap. This research used fifteen male Garut sheep with an average body weight of 29.90 ± 3.71 kg. This research used randomized block design consisting of three treatments and five replicates. The treatments were diet without supplementation BSF oil or Calcium soap (P1), diet with BSF oil suplementation 4% (P2) and diet with BSF Calcium soap suplementation 4% (P3). Data were analyzed using ANOVA and further test with Duncan test. The analysis showed that the rumen pH value, ammonia concentration, and protozoa population in the rumen were not affected by the treatments. Concentration of VFA and population of rumen bacteria were significantly (P<0.05) affected by the treatments. The total VFA concentration of P3 was significantly higher (P<0.05) than P1 and P2. Rumen bacteria population of P3 was significantly higher (P<0.05) than P1 and or P2. It can be concluded that supplementation of BSF Calcium soap improve rumen fermentation indicated by higher VFA concentration and bacteria population in the rumen.

Structural changes and calcium bioaccessibility of calcium fortified milk containing CaCO3 loaded solid-in-oil-in-water emulsion during simulated in vitro digestion.

In most regions around the globe, average dietary calcium intake is relatively low. Consumers increasingly supplement calcium with milk. However, commercial high-calcium milk has the problem of low calcium bioaccessibility. This study was to explore calcium fortified milk containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) loaded solid-in-oil-in-water emulsion as a potential novel calcium fortified milk with higher calcium bioaccessibility. The CaCO3 loaded solid-in-oil-in-water (S/O/W) emulsion with good physical stability (zeta potential -33.34 ± 0.96 mV, mean particle size 4.49 ± 0.02 μm) and high calcium bioaccessibility (32.34%) was prepared when the concentration of xanthan gum was 4 g L-1 . Furthermore, the physicochemical properties and gastrointestinal fate of calcium fortified milk (calcium contents, 1.25 mg mL-1 , 1.35 mg mL-1 , and 1.45 mg mL-1 ) with different proportions of CaCO3 loaded S/O/W emulsion and pure milk were investigated. The calcium fortified milk (calcium content, 1.25 mg mL-1 ) with a small amount of CaCO3 loaded S/O/W emulsion did not significantly affect the physicochemical properties of pure milk and had similar rheological properties and higher calcium bioaccessibility to commercial high-calcium milk. Excessive calcium ion (Ca2+ ) weakens the electrostatic interaction of milk sample system and causes aggregation of colloidal particles, which was attributed to more insoluble calcium soap formation. This study showed that the S/O/W emulsion delivery system improved the dispersion stability and bioaccessibility of CaCO3 . These findings contribute to the development of calcium fortified milk with improved physicochemical properties and higher calcium bioaccessibility. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chemical Characteristics of Ettawa Crossbreed Goat Milk Fed the Ration Contain of Soybean Oil Calcium Soap

Chemical Characteristics of Ettawa Crossbreed Goat Milk Fed the Ration Contain of Soybean Oil Calcium Soap

Blood Profiles, Microbial Population, Rumen Fermentation and Performance of Bali Calves Fed with Soybean Oil Calcium Soap

Blood Profiles, Microbial Population, Rumen Fermentation and Performance of Bali Calves Fed with Soybean Oil Calcium Soap

Replacement of Conventional Vegetable Oil with Granulated Fats of Palm Oil (Prilled Fats and Calcium Soaps) in Broiler Chicken Diet: Performance and Carcass Traits

Replacement of Conventional Vegetable Oil with Granulated Fats of Palm Oil (Prilled Fats and Calcium Soaps) in Broiler Chicken Diet: Performance and Carcass Traits

Changes in interfacial composition and structure of milk fat globules are crucial regulating lipid digestion in simulated in-vitro infant gastrointestinal digestion

The interfacial phospholipid and protein compositions of fat globule in human milk and three different infant formulas (F1: supplied with MFGM and OPO; F2: supplied with OPO and without MFGM; F3: supplied with MFGM and without OPO) were analyzed and compared, and the changes of interfacial composition and structure on their in-vitro infant gastrointestinal digestion were evaluated. The study from the interfacial properties of fat globule to illustrating the effect of interfacial composition and structure on lipolysis and proteolysis. The results showed that, both F1 and human milk had a similar interfacial phospholipid composition and higher sphingomyelin (SM) content. The interfacial protein composition of F1 was closer to human milk. F1 had the average particle size of 3.67 ± 0.12 μm and a phospholipid layer on the surface of triglyceride. Meanwhile, the relatively complete phospholipid ring structure in F1 could always be observed during gastric digestion, while was gradually destroyed during intestinal digestion. Moreover, F2 and F3 are significantly different from HM and F1 in composition and structure of fat globule. Although MFGM is added to commercial infant formula (F3), most MFGM still existed in the aqueous phase of emulsion in free form. Notable, F1 had similar in-vitro lipolysis and proteolysis properties to human milk. These results indicated that the simulation of human milk fat globule at the molecular level and structure feature was the key contributing to digestion behavior. • The abundant phospholipid ring structure were observed in F1. • F1 had sn-2 SFAs and OPO, which reduced the formation of calcium soap. • HM had the highest lipolysis rate of 86.3%, followed by F1 (82.9%) after digestion. • F1 had similar digestive properties to human milk and is superior to F2 and F3. • The simulation of HM fat at the molecular and structure is key to effect digestion.