Calcium Chloride Type Research Articles

Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index and principal component analysis in the Achnera block, Agra district, Uttar Pradesh, Northern India

The qualitative and quantitative assessment of groundwater is one of the important aspects for determining the suitability of potable water. Therefore, the present study has been performed to evaluate the groundwater quality for Achhnera block in the city of Taj, Agra, India, where groundwater is an important water resource. The groundwater samples, 50 in number were collected and analyzed for major ions along with some important trace element. This study has further investigated for the applicability of groundwater quality index (GWQI), and the principal component analysis (PCA) to mark out the major geochemical solutes responsible for origin and release of geochemical solutes into the groundwater. The results confirm that, majority of the collected groundwater samples were alkaline in nature. The variation of concentration of anions in collected groundwater samples were varied in the sequence as, HCO3− > Cl− > SO42− > F− while in contrast the sequence of cations in the groundwater as Na > Ca > Mg > K. The Piper diagram demonstrated the major hydro chemical facies which were found in groundwater (sodium bicarbonate or calcium chloride type). The plot of Schoellar diagram reconfirmed that the major cations were Na+ and Ca2+ ions, while in contrast; major anions were bicarbonates and chloride. The results showed water quality index mostly ranged between 105 and 185, hence, the study area fell in the category of unsuitable for drinking purpose category. The PCA showed pH, Na+, Ca2+, HCO3− and fluoride with strong loading, which pointed out geogenic source of fluoride contamination. Therefore, it was inferred that the groundwater of the contaminated areas must be treated and made potable before consumption. The outcomes of the present study will be helpful for the regulatory boards and policymaker for defining the actual impact and remediation goal.

Hydrochemical Facies Description to Assess the Groundwater Quality in Southern Part of Haditha District, Iraq

The current study explains the hydrochemical processes controlling the variance in the hydrochemical facies for eighteen samples obtained from the study area. The groundwater samples were analyzed for the major ions "cations and anions" data in mg/l, total dissolved solids (TDS) in mg/l, electrical conductivity (EC) in μS/cm, pH unit less, and temperature in °C. Piper trilinear (three-line) diagram indicates the overall of samples belong to class 1 (Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-), category I (SO42- - Cl- and Ca2+ - Mg2+) and permanent total hardness (calcium chloride type). The contribution of cations in the study area was different percentages (dominant cation sodium (Na+)), while the sulfate (SO42-) is the dominant ion of the groundwater in the study area. The analytical values showed that overall the samples were brackish water and high enrichment salts within the impermissible limits of the World Health Organization standards. Irrigation parameters and water quality index were calculated for samples to assess water for agricultural and drinking uses for the inhabitants of the study area. The basic exchange is the exchange of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions in water with magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+) ions in materials which are exposed to weathering.

Evaluation of the Suitability of the Euphrates River water for Drinking and Irrigation purposes in Haditha City, Western Iraq

The supply of freshwater is essential to life, socio-economic development, and political stability in the Middle East. Recently, Iraq's rivers have experienced extreme shortage water scarcity as a result of climate change, as evidenced by the rarity of rainfall and high temperatures. To assess the Euphrates river water for drinking and irrigation uses in Haditha city, Ten water samples were collected in the study region and analyzed for major ions. It was established that water samples in the study region are considered freshwater, low enrichment of salts, and slightly alkaline water. Piper diagram indicates the overall samples belong to class1 (Mg 2+, Ca 2+, SO4 2-, Cl -) and category I (Ca 2+ - Mg 2+ and SO4 2- - Cl -), calcium chloride type (permanent hardness). The Water Quality Index shows that water samples are suitable for drinking purposes. All water sample is suitable for irrigation in the study region. 

Study of the possibility of reservoir water solutions as a well-killing fluid using

The possibility and expediency of using reservoir and oilfield wastewater in areas of depleted and exhausted deposits in oil production for the preparation of liquids used for well killing, cement slurry mixing; table salt suitable as a food product producing. Based on laboratory studies, it has been found out that from one ton of water, on average, 180–210 kg of well killing fluid and 140–150 kg of common salt can be obtained, and dilution of heavy brine with fresh technical water can significantly increase the cement stone strength when fixing wells. The carried out simulation tests indicate that there is no deterioration in the reservoir properties of productive formations when they come into contact with heavy brines and the possibility of using such brines as a well killing fluid. A method has been developed for well-killing fluid and sodium chloride obtaining from oil field formation waters, including the initial formation water of calcium chloride type purification from mechanical impurities, oil residues, bringing its density to the concentration of calcium chloride, at which sodium chloride precipitates. Keywords: reservoir water; well killing fluid; table salt; cement stone strength; sodium chloride salting.

Hydrogeochemical conditions of the Mesozoic hydrogeological basin within the Ravninnoe oil field

Studies of the hydrogeochemical features of groundwater in deep horizons of the West Siberian megabasin are important. They are closely related to applied and fundamental issues of oil and gas hydrogeology and allow studying the processes of formation, accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons.The article deals with our analysis of the hydrogeochemical conditions of the Mesozoic hydrogeological basin within the Ravninnoe oil field. The ion-salt composition of groundwater in deep horizons in the territory is variable. Basically groundwater are of the calcium chloride type (according to V. A. Sulin's classification), but magnesium chloride and sodium bicarbonate types of water are locally distributed. The hydrogeological conditions of the field are manifested in the change in the chemical composition of groundwater and in the vertical hydrochemical zonality. The article describes the features of the regional distribution of reservoir temperatures and reservoir pressures of the Aptian-Albian-Cenomanian, Neocomian and Jurassic hydrogeological complexes. The study of the formation factors of the hydrogeochemical field of these deposits was carried out taking into account paleotectonic, paleogeomorphological and paleohydrogeological reconstructions of the conditions that influenced the accumulation of fluids. Faults are widespread in the deposits of the pre-Jurassic complex, as well as angular unconformities between rocks of different ages, which predetermined the migration of hydrocarbons and the formation of their deposits.

Water Quality Assessment of Ekulu and Asata Rivers in Enugu Area, Southeastern Nigeria, Using Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Parameters

This study was aimed at assessing the impacts of human activities on the quality of Ekulu and Asata Rivers in Enugu Area, Southeastern Nigeria. Twelve (12) water samples six (6) from Ekulu River and (six 6) from Asata River) were collected at different points along the regime of the two rivers and their physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics/parameters determined. Results of the study indicate that the two rivers do not satisfy the Drinking Water Quality Standard of World Health Organization (WHO) and Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV) in terms of pH/acidity (values between 4.5 and 7.0 and outside the WHO Standard of 6-5-8-5); turbidity (values between 7.88 and 294NTU units and greater than WHO standard of 5.0NTU units); iron (values between 3.10 and 7.35 mg/1 and greater than WHO standard of below 0.30mg/l; and coliform (values between 20 and 180 counts per 100ml and greater than WHO Standard of 3 counts per 100ml). Though Ekulu River is more acidic (lower pH values), more turbid (higher NTU units) and contains higher concentration of iron than Asata River. On the other hand, only Asata River do not satisfy the WHO Standards in terms of nitrate concentration (values between 8.9 and 25.9mg/l and greater than WHO Standard of 10 mg/1): and chromium (heavy metal, values between 0.189 and 0.429 mg/1 and greater than WHO Standard of 0.00lmg/1) Human activities of mining at abandoned Onyeama Coal Mine, car watch and disposal of industrial/domestic wastes are believed to be responsible for poor water quality of the two rivers in Enugu area. On the basis of Piper Diagram Classification, Ekulu River may be classified as Calcium Chloride Type, while Asata River may be classified as Mixed Water Type. Water from the two rivers, to be used for domestic and industrial purposes, should be adequately treated; and there is need to institute regular water quality monitoring programme for the two rivers. Keywords: Water Quality, Ekulu River, Asata River, Enugu Area, Assessment, Piper Diagram DOI: 10.7176/JEES/11-4-07 Publication date: April 30 th 2021

Increasing the production of gas condensate by using ammonium carbonate salts

The work is devoted to the problem of increasing gas condensate production in gas condensate fields. It was found that ammonium carbonate salts, in the absence of calcium chloride type waters, interact with carbonate rocks, increase the permeability of reservoirs. Solutions of ammonium carbonate salts when interacting with formation water of the calcium chloride type form chemically precipitated chalk in the pore space, while the permeability of carbonate rocks decreases. A set of experimental studies was carried out to study the displacing and washing properties of ammonium carbonate salts. It was found that ammonium carbonate salts have high displacing properties, the displacement ratio of kerosene by NH4HCO3 solution is 0.75-0.80, while reservoir water – 0.55-0.58. According to the results of laboratory studies of the displacing and washing characteristics of ammonium carbonate salts, conclusions were made about the effect of bicarbonate solution (ammonium carbonate salts) on the production characteristics of a well in reservoir conditions at temperatures of 80-100 °C and above. Industrial tests of ammonium carbonate salts showed an increase in gas flow by 30-50% at wells № 23 of Opishnia, № 115 of Mashivka, № 3 of Tymofiivka gas condensate fields. The effect of formation treatment with ammonium carbonate salts is achieved due to clearing of well bottom zone and increasing the formation permeability. At wells № 56, 108 of Yablunivka and № 58 of Tymofiivka gas condensate fields, an increase in the condensate ratio was observed by 22-35%. The effectiveness of this treatment is associated with the simultaneous bottomhole zone cleaning from asphalt-resinous contaminants and permeability increase, as well as with the hydrophilization of the pore space and mobility increase of condensate precipitated as a result of carbon dioxide effect, which was rejected as a result of decomposition of ammonium carbonate. Thus, experimental and industrial tests in Opishnia, Mashivka, Tymofiivka, Yablunivka gas condensate fields of Poltava region confirmed the effectiveness of using ammonium carbonate to increase hydrocarbon production. The prospect of further research is aimed at developing a technology for increasing the production of liquid hydrocarbons by using ammonium carbonate salts.

HYDROCHEMICAL FACIES DESCRIPTION TO ASSESS THE WATER QUALITY OF HABBANIYA LAKE, IRAQ

The present study depicts the hydrochemical processes controlling the variance in the hydrochemical facies for sixteen samples obtained from Habbaniya Lake. The water samples were analyzed for the major ions (cations and anions) data in mg/l, total dissolved solids in mg/l, pH unitless, electrical conductivity in μS/cm, and temperature in °C. Piper trilinear (three-line) diagram indicates the overall of samples belongs to class 1 (Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-), category I (SO42- - Cl- and Ca2+ - Mg2+), and permanent total hardness (calcium chloride type). The contribution of cations in the Habbaniya lake was almost the same percentage (no dominant cation), while the SO42- is the dominant ion of the surface water in the Habbaniya lake. The analytical values showed that overall the samples were freshwater and low enrichment salts within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization standards. Irrigation parameters and water quality index were calculated for samples to assess water for agricultural and drinking uses for the inhabitants of the study area. The basic exchange is the exchange of Na+ and K+ ions in water with Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in materials which is exposed to weathering.

Hydrochemical Assessment of Groundwater and Some Springs in Qazaniyah Area, Diyala province, East of Iraq

The Qazaniyah study included the analysis of 18 wells and 2 springs for the dry period in October 2018 and the wet period in April 2019, including the analysis of physical and chemical properties and the study of heavy elements (Fe, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni and Cu).The results showed that the water wells and springs for the two periods are highly mineralized and characterized by low alkalinity and very high hardness. Water was fresh in some wells and salty in the others, whereas it was fresh in the springs. Most of the wells had sodium chloride type, except the wells 12, 7, 6, and 5 which were of Calcium chloride type. The springs for both seasons had calcium chloride type. Based on the World Health Organization criteria , all the wells for both periods are not suitable for human drinking, whereas the springs are suitable only for drinking of livestock and poultry. Sodium adsorption rate (SAR) was excellent for groundwater and springs for both seasons. The percentage of sodium (na%) in both seasons showed that the wells 18,17,15,11,4,3 as well as the springs are within the permissible limits for irrigation purposes, while the remaining of the wells was not.

Hydrochemical Evaluation of Surface and Groundwater in Khan Al-Baghdadi Area, Al- Anbar Province / West of Iraq

The hydrochemical study of the surface and groundwater in Khan AL-Baghdadi area included interpretation of physical, chemical and biological properties of 14 wells and 6 surface water samples collected from Euphrates River.. The study covered two periods representing dry and wet periods in October 2018 and April 2019, respectively. The surface water samples were characterized as slightly alkaline, fresh water, excessively mineralized, calcium-chloride type, and hard to very hard class. While the groundwater samples were characterized as slightly alkaline, brackish water, excessively mineralized, calcium-chloride and sodium-chloride type, and hard to very hard class. The assessment of water for irrigation purposes for both water sources in the dry period showed a Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) of no harmful effects, while the Soluble Sodium Percentage (Na%) demonstrated a good irrigation Water Class, except for one well with a permissible irrigation Water Class. While in the wet period, all surface and groundwater samples were of a good irrigation Water Class, except for two wells with permissible irrigation Water Class. In terms of total dissolved solids (TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC), all surface water samples for the two periods were within the permissible limits of irrigation water quality, whereas groundwater samples for the two periods showed unsuitable limits, except for three wells within the permissible limits of irrigation water quality. The microbiological tests showed that all samples of surface and groundwater are classified as clean.

Solid−liquid phase equilibria of the quinary system containing lithium, sodium, calcium, strontium and chloride ions at 273.15 K and 101.325 kPa

The solid–liquid phase equilibria of systems LiCl–NaCl–CaCl2–SrCl2–H2O and CaCl2–SrCl2–H2O at 273.15 K and 0.1 MPa were investigated with the isothermal equilibrium method. The solid–liquid equilibrium phase diagrams were constructed with the experimental solubilities. The phase diagram in the ternary system consists of one univariant solubility curve saturated with solid solution (Ca,Sr)Cl2·6H2O, and one crystallization field of the solid solution. There are three invariant points, seven isothermal univariant curves, and five crystallization regions saturated with NaCl corresponding to (Ca,Sr)Cl2·6H2O, SrCl2·2H2O, LiCl·2H2O, CaCl2·4H2O and LiCl·CaCl2·5H2O in the dry-salt diagram of the quinary system. The areas of crystallization zones decrease according to the above order. The J(NaCl), J(H2O), refractive index and density of the solution gradually change regularly with the increasing of J(CaCl2) in the solution. These results on phase diagrams of the quinary system can supply theoretical reference for lithium salts and strontium salts separation from calcium chloride type brine.

Chemical Ecology and Microbial Quality Assessment of Water of Recreational Hot Springs of Sikkim Himalayas

The major recreational hot springs of Sikkim which are famous tourist destinations were selected for the current study. Physicochemical and microbial quality of all the seven hot spring water samples were examined to assess the seasonal variation for three months. Polok hot spring was the hottest among all, whose temperature reached up to 75°C. In all the other hot springs, temperature ranged from 40°C to 50°C. Piper diagram, durov plot and schoeller plot categorized these hot springs as calcium chloride type. Elemental analysis showed similar pattern of composition in all the hot springs. Various other parameters such as total hardness of water, total alkalinity, phenolic compounds, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand were analyzed and they were found to be within the permissible limits of American Public Health Association and Bureau of Indian Standards. There was no growth in any differential and selection media used for the detection of coli-aerogenes, enteric bacterial pathogens belonging to Enterobacteriaceae, Salmonella-Shigella sp., Vibrio sp. and Pseudomonas sp. Hence, the hot springs of Sikkim are safe for recreational purposes.

• THE INFLUENCE OF CARBONIC ACID AMMONIUM SALTS ON THE FILTRATION PROPERTIES OF BOTTOM-HOLE FORMATION ZONE

The possibility of using ammonium carbonates to increase hydrocarbons extraction is considered. To study the effect of ammonium carbonate salts on the reservoir filtration properties a complex of experimental studies has been carried out. It has been established that carbon dioxide ammonium salts, in the absence of calcium chloride water, interact with carbonate rocks, increase the absolute permeability of reservoirs. The solutions of ammonium carbonate salts interact with calcium chloride type of formation water and form chemically precipitated chalk in the pores of the rock. Herewith the permeability of carbonate rocks decreases. The industrial tests of ammonium carbonate salts have shown an increase in gas flow rate by 30-50% at wells № 23 of Opishnyanske, № 115 of Mashivske, № 3 of Tymofiyivske gas condensate fields. The effect of the ammonium carbonates treatment of the formation is stipulated by the purification of the bottom-hole formation zone and an increase of the absolute permeability of the reservoirs. The increase of the condensation factor by 22-35% has been observed in wells № 56, 108 of Yablunivske and № 58 of Tymofiyivske gas condensate fields. The efficiency of the treatment is related to the simultaneous purification of the bottom-hole zone from asphalt-resinous contaminants and to the absolute permeability increase, as well as to the pore space hydrophilization and the increase in the mobility of condensate that has fallen due to the influence of carbon dioxide which generates as a result of the decomposition of carbonic acid ammonium salts. Thus, pilot tests at Opishnyanske, Mashivske, Tymofiyivske, Yablunsvske gas condensate fields of Poltava region confirmed the effectiveness of using ammonium carbonate salts to increase hydrocarbon production. The prospect of further research is aimed at developing a technology for increasing the liquid hydrocarbons production by the use of ammonium carbonate salts.

Determination of Arsenic in High Salinity and Calcium Chloride Type Groundwater by Dynamic Reaction Cell-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

A new procedure for the direct determination of total arsenic in high salinity and CaCl2 type groundwater has been developed.In order to remove the polyatomic interferences40Ar35Cl+,40Ca35Cl+,39K36Ar+arising from the direct analysis of high salinity and CaCl2type groundwater,75As+,the mass for general detection,was effectively changed to75As16O+which could be detected at m/z 91 by reaction with oxygen in a Dynamic Reaction Cell( DRC).The DRC parameters were optimized,the background equivalent concentration( BEC) was minimum when O2gas flow rate was 0.1 mL/min and the rejection parameter q( RPq) of DRC was 0.55.The signal intensity of75As16O+was improved 4-fold by addition of 3% methanol into sample solution.The accuracy was verified by the analysis of certified reference materials of sea-water( CASS-5,NASS-4).Detection limits of 0.011 μg/L and the relative standard deviation of 1.8% were obtained.

Geostatistical Assessment of Groundwater Quality from Coastal Aquifers of Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria

The quality of groundwater in the coastal aquifer of eastern Niger Delta has been assessed in the present study using Geostatistical techniques. The range, standard deviation and variance of the dataset show that multi-chemical processes are controlling the groundwater quality/facies and their spatial distributions. The overall WQI value was 285.20 and this is an indication that the groundwater in the area is of poor quality. The higher mean values of copper, iron, lead, nitrate, TC, EC, COD, chromium, nickel and zinc are some of the contributors to deteriorating groundwater quality and their presence can be attributed to both natural and anthropogenic sources. Six Factors, accounting for 91.18% of the total variance were identified. Factors 1 (Conductivity, Cl<SUP>-</SUP>, TH, TSS, TDS, Na and Mg), factor 2 (Ca, Fe, pH, NO<SUB>3</SUB><SUP>-</SUP>, K and SO<SUB>4</SUB><SUP>2-</SUP>), factor 3 (BOD, COD, PO<SUB>4</SUB><SUP>2-</SUP>, EC and TC), factor 4 (Cu, F, Mn and Zn), factor 5 (Cr, Pb and Ni) and factor 6 (Ar and Hg) represent the signatures of saltwater intrusion,<SUP> </SUP>chemical weathering, leaching and various human activities domiciled in the area. Factors 1 and 2 represents ions with dominant concentration and therefore are the contributors to the groundwater salinity while factors 3 to 6 are indicators of anthropogenic interference. Piper diagram revealed that the water in the area is Calcium-Chloride type, suggesting a marine origin. The usefulness of Geostatistical methods in interpreting the hydrogeochemical data as well as identifying and categorizing pollutants has been demonstrated in this study.

Hydrochemical evaluation of the coastal Quaternary aquifer east of Tripoli, Libya

Chemical analyses of more than 80 water wells penetrating the first aquifer in the coastal areas east of Tripoli indicate three different hydrochemical facies. Sodium chloride type water is mainly related to the encroachment of sea water as a result of excessive abstraction. The chemical interaction between groundwater and the aquifer materials led to the formation of calcium bicarbonate type water. Calcium chloride type is developed when the intruded sea water, very rich in Na ions, forced through the aquifer materials, and part of these cations replaced the Ca at the exchange sites of the clay minerals. Plotted against chloride, the concentrations of the Na, K, Ca, Mg, sulphate and bicarbonate species deviate considerably from the ideal mixing curves of fresh groundwater and sea water. Sulphate and bicarbonate enrichments are strongly related to the oxidation of sulphides and dissolution of calcite minerals present in the aquifer materials. Sea water intrusion and reverse cation exchanges reactions are the most important phenomena in the chemical evolution of the salinised groundwater.

Preliminary study of the chemistry of pore water extracted from tuff by one-dimensional compression : Peters, C A; Yang, I C; Higgins, J D; Burger, P A Proc 7th International Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction, Park City, 13–18 July 1992V1, P741–745. Publ Rotterdam: A A Balkema, 1992

A specially designed and fabricated one-dimensional compression cell is being used to extract water from nonwelded and densely welded tuffs having degrees of saturation greater than 16 and 37 percent respectively. Chemical analyses of pore water obtained at increasing pressures are used to evaluate possible changes in chemistry caused by compression. The extracted pore water varies form a calcium chloride type to a sodium bicarbonate type. The mean concentration of dissolved ions generally decreases during compression. The relative abundance of the major cations varies little with increasing pressure. Possible causes of the pore-water-chemistry changes include: (1) dilution of pore water by low ionic strength adsorbed water from zeolites and clays; (2) dissolution reactions caused by the increase in dissolved carbon dioxide concentrations that may result from pressurization; (3) membrane filtration by zeolites and clays; and (4) ion exchange with the zeolites and clays.

Ferroelastic phase transition in CaCl2 studied by Raman spectroscopy

CaCl2 undergoes a second-order proper ferroelastic phase transition from the tetragonal rutile type to the orthorhombic calcium-chloride type structure atT c ≈490 K. The transition is of the optical type and induced by an order parameter ofB 1g symmetry. An underdamped soft mode exists above and belowT c , the frequency and intensity of which have been measured by Raman spectroscopy. Due to a strong coupling to strain the softening is incomplete and a transverse acoustical mode is predicted to become soft. The frequency of the optical soft mode, ωs, exhibits a classical Landau behavior in a remarkably large temperature range. The unusual value of the ratio of ∂ω s 2 /∂ below and aboveT c of about −6.5 can be accounted for by appropriate terms of the thermodynamical potential. The Raman active hard modes show no significant anomaly atT c .

南極の地下水

The existence of groundwater in the Antarctic was suggested by seismic and field electrical studies. Groundwater in the area is thought to be a calcium-chloride type water. And the ground water collected in the drilled hole at L. Vanda, Victoria land in the Antarctic was highly saline and calcium-chloride type water. From the results of caliculation and isotopic studies, the water may be equillibrium with gypsum. As an example, the chemical compositions of groundwater were shown as follows: Na+8.75, K+1.08, Ca2+33.2, Mg2+10.5,Cl-108, SO24-0.25 in g/kg.

Calcium chloride type water discharged from the Matsushiro area in connection with swarm earthquakes

The authors determined the chemical composition of ground water which gushed out in connection with swarm earthquakes in the Matsushiro area (Nagano Pref., Central Japan), from September 1966 to December 1968. This paper shows the variation in the chemical composition of the ground water with time and the remarkable increase in the calcium, chloride and carbon dioxide contents with increasing activity of the swarm earthquakes. A hypothesis on the origin of the waters is also presented.