Community Health Worker Cadre Research Articles

Health and political economy: building a new common sense in the United States.

The prevailing economic paradigm, characterized by free market thinking and individualistic cultural narratives, has deeply influenced contemporary society in recent decades, including health in the United States. This paradigm, far from being natural, is iteratively intertwined with politics, social group stratification, and norms, together shaping what is known as political economy. The consequences are starkly evident in health, with millions of lives prematurely lost annually in the United States. Drawing on economic re-thinking happening in fields like climate and law, we argue for a new "common sense" towards a health-focused political economy. Central to this proposed shift is action in 3 interconnected areas: capital, care, and culture. Re-orienting capital to prioritize longer-term investments, such as in public options for health care and baby bonds, can promote health and affirmatively include historically marginalized groups. Recognizing that caregiving is economically valuable and necessary for health, approaches like local cadres of community health workers across the United States would be part of building robust caregiving infrastructures. Advancing momentum in these directions, in turn, will require displacing dominant cultural narratives. As the health arena pursues change in the face of real obstacles, recent efforts reinvigorating industrial policy and addressing concentrated market power can serve as inspiration.

Success in vaccination programming through community health workers: a qualitative analysis of interviews and focus group discussions from Nepal, Senegal and Zambia

ObjectivesCommunity health workers are essential to front-line health outreach throughout low-income and middle-income countries, including programming for early childhood immunisation. Understanding how community health workers are engaged for successful early...

Labour conditions in dual-cadre community health worker programmes: a systematic review

Health care delivered by community health workers reduces morbidity and mortality while providing a considerable return on investment. Despite growing consensus that community health workers, a predominantly female workforce, should receive a salary, many community health worker programmes take the form of dual-cadre systems, where a salaried cadre of community health workers works alongside a cadre of unsalaried community health workers. We aimed to determine the presence, prevalence, and magnitude of exploitation in national dual-cadre programmes. We did a systematic review of available evidence from peer-reviewed databases and grey literature from database inception to Aug 2, 2021, for studies on unsalaried community health worker cadres in dual-cadre systems. Editorials, protocols, guidelines, or conference reports were excluded in addition to studies about single-tier community health worker programmes and those reporting on only salaried cadres of community health workers in a dual-cadre system. We extracted data on remuneration, workload, task complexity, and self-reported experiences of community health workers. Three models were created: a minimum model with the shortest time and frequency per task documented in the literature, a maximum model with the longest time, and a median model. Labour exploitation was defined as being engaged in work below the country's minimum wage together with excessive work hours or complex tasks. The study was registered with PROSPERO, CRD42021271500. We included 117 reports from 112 studies describing community health workers in dual-cadre programmes across 19 countries. The majority of community health workers were female. 13 (59%) of 22 unsalaried community health worker cadres and one (10%) of ten salaried cadres experienced labour exploitation. Three (17%) of 18 unsalaried community health workers would need to work more than 40 h per week to fulfil their assigned responsibilities. Unsalaried community health worker cadres frequently reported non-payment, inadequate or inconsistent payment of incentives, and an overburdensome workload. Unsalaried community health workers in dual-cadre programmes often face labour exploitation, potentially leading to inadequate health-care provision. Labour laws must be upheld and the creation of professional community health worker cadres with fair contracts prioritised, international funding allocated to programmes that rely on unsalaried workers should be transparently reported, the workloads of community health workers should be modelled a priori and actual time use routinely assessed, community health workers should have input in policies that affect them, and volunteers should not be responsible for the delivery of essential health services. None.

Trial-based economic evaluation of the system-integrated activation of community health volunteers in rural Ghana

ABSTRACT Background Globally, steps to revitalise programmes deploying community health workers (CHWs) on a national scale have been growing, but few economic evaluations have been done on system-integrated CHW programmes. Ghana has dual cadres of CHWs: community health officers (CHOs) and community health volunteers (CHVs). CHO plays a major role in primary health services but has suffered from chronic staff shortages. We activated CHVs in communities to mitigate the negative impact due to CHO shortages. The CHVs conducted home visits and provided health education to prevent childhood diseases. Objective We evaluated the cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit of activating CHVs. Methods In a cluster-randomised trial with 40 communities in rural Ghana, the changes in disease incidence were inferred from a statistical model using a Bayesian generalised linear multilevel model. We evaluated the total incremental cost, benefit, and effectiveness for the intervention from an economic model. In cost-effectiveness analysis, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were estimated using a decision tree model. In the cost-benefit analysis, the cost-benefit ratio and net present value of benefit were estimated using a decision tree model, and a standardised sensitivity analysis was conducted. The decision tree model was a one-year cycle and run over 10-years. Costs, benefits, and effectiveness were discounted at a rate of 3% per year. Results According to the cost-effectiveness analysis, the programme was highly likely to exceed the WHO-CHOICE threshold (1–3 times GDP per capita), but it was unlikely to exceed the conservative threshold (10–50% of GDP per capita). In the cost-benefit analysis, the mean and median cost-benefit ratios were 6.4 and 4.8, respectively. Conclusion We found the potential economic strengths in the cost-benefit analysis. To integrate CHW programmes with national health systems, we need more research to find the most effective scope of work for CHWs.

Understanding Factors That Support Community Health Worker Motivation, Job Satisfaction, and Performance in Three Ugandan Districts: Opportunities for Strengthening Uganda's Community Health Worker Program.

Uganda's community health worker (CHW) program experiences several challenges related to the appropriate motivation, job satisfaction, and performance of the CHW workforce. This study aims to identify barriers in the effective implementation of financial and non-financial incentives to support CHWs and to strengthen Uganda's CHW program. The study was implemented in Uganda's Lira, Wakiso, and Mayuge districts in May 2019. Ten focus group discussions (FGDs) were held with 91 CHWs, 17 in-depth interviews (IDIs) were held with CHW supervisors, and 7 IDIs were held with policy-level stakeholders. Participants included stakeholders from both the Ugandan government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Utilizing a thematic approach, themes around motivation, job satisfaction, incentive preferences, and CHW relationships with the community, healthcare facilities, and government were analyzed. CHWs identified a range of factors that contributed to their motivation or demotivation. Non-monetary factors included recognition from the health system and community, access to transportation, methods for identification as a healthcare worker, provision of working tools, and training opportunities. Monetary factors included access to monthly stipends, transportation-related refunds, and timely payment systems to reduce refund delays to CHWs. Additionally, CHWs indicated wanting to be considered for recruitment into the now-halted rollout of a salaried CHW cadre, given the provision of payment. It is imperative to consider how to best support the current CHW program prior to the introduction of new cadres, as it can serve to exacerbate tensions between cadres and further undermine provision of community health. Providing a harmonized, balanced, and uniform combination of both monetary incentives with non-monetary incentives is vital for effective CHW programs.

Village health worker motivation for better performance in a maternal and child health programme in Nigeria: A realist evaluation.

BackgroundCommunity health workers play an important role in linking communities with formal health service providers, thereby improving access to and utilization of health care. A novel cadre of community health workers known as village health workers (VHWs) were recruited to create demand for maternal health services in the Nigerian Subsidy Reinvestment Programme (SURE-P/MCH). In this study, we investigated the role of contextual factors and underlying mechanisms motivating VHWs.MethodsWe used realist evaluation to understand the impact of a multi-intervention maternal and child health programme on VHW motivation using Anambra State as a case study. Initial working theories and logic maps were developed through literature review and stakeholder engagement; programme theories were developed and tested using focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with various stakeholder groups. Interview transcripts were analysed through an integrated approach of Context, Mechanism and Outcomes (CMO) categorisation and connecting, and matching of patterns of CMO configurations. Motivation theories were used to explain factors that influence VHW motivation. Explanatory configurations are reported in line with RAMESES reporting standards.ResultsThe performance of VHWs in the SURE-P maternal and child health programme was linked to four main mechanisms of motivation: feelings of confidence, sense of identity or feeling of acceptance, feeling of happiness and hopefulness/expectation of valued outcome. These mechanisms were triggered by interactions of programme-specific contexts and resources such as training and supervision of VHWs by skilled health workers, provision of first aid kits and uniforms, and payments of a monthly stipend. The monthly payment was considered to be the most important motivational factor by VHWs. VHWs used a combination of innovative approaches to create demand for maternity services among pregnant women, and their performance was influenced by health system factors such as organisational capacity and culture, and societal factors such as relationship with the community and community support.ConclusionThis paper highlights important contextual factors and mechanisms for VHW motivation that can be applied to other interventions that seek to strengthen community engagement and demand creation in primary health care. Future research on how to sustain VHW motivation is also required.

The aggregate effect of implementation strength of family planning programs on modern contraceptive use at the health systems level in rural Malawi.

To explore the association between the strength of implementation of family planning (FP) programs on the use of modern contraceptives. Specifically, how strongly these programs are being implemented across a health facility’s catchment area in Malawi and the odds of a woman in that catchment area is using modern contraceptives. This information can be used to assess whether the combined impact of multiple large-scale FP programs is leading to change in the health outcomes they aim to improve. We used data from the 2017 Implementation Strength Assessment (ISA) that quantified how much of family planning programs at the health facility and community health worker levels were being implemented across every district of Malawi. We used a summary measure developed in a previous study that employs quantitative methods to combine data across FP domains and health system levels. We tested the association of this summary measure for implementation strength with household data from the 2015 Malawi Demographic Health Survey (DHS). We found that areas with stronger implementation of FP programs had higher odds of women using modern contraceptives compared with areas with weaker implementation. The association of ISA with use of modern contraception was different by education, marital status, and geography. After controlling for these factors, we found that the adjusted odds of using a modern contraceptive was three times higher in catchment areas with high implementation strength compared to those with lower strength. Metrics that summarize how strongly FP programs are being implemented were used to show a statistically significantly positive relationship between increasing implementation strength and higher rates of modern contraceptive use. Decisionmakers at the various levels of health authority can use this type of summary measure to better understand the combined impact of their diverse FP programming and inform future programmatic and policy decisions. The findings also reinforce the idea that having a well-supported and supplied cadre of community health workers supplementing FP provision at the health facility can be an important health systems mechanism, especially in rural settings and to target youth populations.

Evaluation of a community-based mobile video breastfeeding intervention in Khayelitsha, South Africa: The Philani MOVIE cluster-randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundIn South Africa, breastfeeding promotion is a national health priority. Regular perinatal home visits by community health workers (CHWs) have helped promote exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) in underresourced settings. Innovative, digital approaches including mobile video content have also shown promise, especially as access to mobile technology increases among CHWs. We measured the effects of an animated, mobile video series, the Philani MObile Video Intervention for Exclusive breastfeeding (MOVIE), delivered by a cadre of CHWs (“mentor mothers”).Methods and findingsWe conducted a stratified, cluster-randomized controlled trial from November 2018 to March 2020 in Khayelitsha, South Africa. The trial was conducted in collaboration with the Philani Maternal Child Health and Nutrition Trust, a nongovernmental community health organization. We quantified the effect of the MOVIE intervention on EBF at 1 and 5 months (primary outcomes), and on other infant feeding practices and maternal knowledge (secondary outcomes). We randomized 1,502 pregnant women in 84 clusters 1:1 to 2 study arms. Participants’ median age was 26 years, 36.9% had completed secondary school, and 18.3% were employed. Mentor mothers in the video intervention arm provided standard-of-care counseling plus the MOVIE intervention; mentor mothers in the control arm provided standard of care only. Within the causal impact evaluation, we nested a mixed-methods performance evaluation measuring mentor mothers’ time use and eliciting their subjective experiences through in-depth interviews.At both points of follow-up, we observed no statistically significant differences between the video intervention and the control arm with regard to EBF rates and other infant feeding practices [EBF in the last 24 hours at 1 month: RR 0.93 (95% CI 0.86 to 1.01, P = 0.091); EBF in the last 24 hours at 5 months: RR 0.90 (95% CI 0.77 to 1.04, P = 0.152)]. We observed a small, but significant improvement in maternal knowledge at the 1-month follow-up, but not at the 5-month follow-up. The interpretation of the results from this causal impact evaluation changes when we consider the results of the nested mixed-methods performance evaluation. The mean time spent per home visit was similar across study arms, but the intervention group spent approximately 40% of their visit time viewing videos. The absence of difference in effects on primary and secondary endpoints implies that, for the same time investment, the video intervention was as effective as face-to-face counseling with a mentor mother. The videos were also highly valued by mentor mothers and participants. Study limitations include a high loss to follow-up at 5 months after premature termination of the trial due to the COVID-19 pandemic and changes in mentor mother service demarcations.ConclusionsThis trial measured the effect of a video-based, mobile health (mHealth) intervention, delivered by CHWs during home visits in an underresourced setting. The videos replaced about two-fifths of CHWs’ direct engagement time with participants in the intervention arm. The similar outcomes in the 2 study arms thus suggest that the videos were as effective as face-to-face counselling, when CHWs used them to replace a portion of that counselling. Where CHWs are scarce, mHealth video interventions could be a feasible and practical solution, supporting the delivery and scaling of community health promotion services.Trial registrationThe study and its outcomes were registered at clinicaltrials.gov (#NCT03688217) on September 27, 2018.

Exploring the Role of Community Health Workers in Improving the Collection of Family Health History: A Pilot Study.

Community health workers (CHWs) have been successful partners in addressing public health and health care challenges but have yet to be engaged in efforts to promote family health history (FHH) collection. FHH information is a key factor in determining disease risk and supporting screening and prevention across multiple diseases. The collection of FHH information could be facilitated by the existing cadre of CHWs already working alongside clients and families. In this qualitative study, we interviewed 30 CHWs from Georgia to better understand the current level of knowledge about FHH, perceptions of how FHH collection aligns with their role, and barriers and facilitators in order to support more active involvement of CHWs in FHH collection. Interviews were completed, transcribed, and double coded by three study team members. More than half of CHWs reported knowing their own FHH information. CHWs showed a strong interest and support for collecting FHH in their job, despite limited current engagement in this role. CHWs acknowledged the collection of FHH as being an opportunity to empower clients to have conversations with their providers. To better support this work, CHWs requested training in using and integrating FHH tools into their workflow and support in communicating about FHH with their clients. Our findings suggest that with support and training, CHWs are uniquely positioned to improve FHH collection among their client base. Ultimately, improving FHH collection skills among the population could allow for better integration of risk-stratified approaches that are informed by FHH information for the prevention, management, and treatment of disease.

Assessing selection procedures and roles of Community Health Volunteers and Community Health Management Committees in Ghana's Community-based Health Planning and Services program.

BackgroundCommunity participation in health care delivery will ensure service availability and accessibility and guarantee community ownership of the program. Community-based strategies such as the involvement of Community Health Volunteers (CHVs) and Community Health Management Committees (CHMCs) are likely to advance primary healthcare in general, but the criteria for selecting CHVs, CHMCs and efforts to sustain these roles are not clear 20 years after implementing the Community-based Health Planning Services program. We examined the process of selecting these cadres of community health workers and their current role within Ghana’s flagship program for primary care–the Community-based Health Planning and Services program.MethodsThis was an exploratory study design using qualitative methods to appraise the health system and stakeholder participation in Community-based Health Planning and Services program implementation in the Upper East region of Ghana. We conducted 51 in-depth interviews and 33 focus group discussions with health professionals and community members.ResultsCommunity Health Volunteers and Community Health Management Committees are the representatives of the community in the routine implementation of the Community-based Health Planning and Services program. They are selected, appointed, or nominated by their communities. Some inherit the position through apprenticeship and others are recruited through advertisement. The selection is mostly initiated by the health providers and carried out by community members. Community Health Volunteers lead community mobilization efforts, support health providers in health promotion activities, manage minor illnesses, and encourage pregnant women to use maternal health services. Community Health Volunteers also translate health messages delivered by health providers to the people in their local languages. Community Health Management Committees mobilize resources for the development of Community-based Health Planning and Services program compounds. They play a mediatory role between health providers in the health compounds and the community members. Volunteers are sometimes given non-financial incentives but there are suggestions to include financial incentives.ConclusionCommunity Health Volunteers and Community Health Management Committees play a critical role in primary health care. The criteria for selecting Community Health Volunteers and Community Health Management Committees vary but need to be standardized to ensure that only self-motivated individuals are selected. Thus, CHVs and CHMCs should contest for their positions and be endorsed by their community members and assigned roles by health professionals in the CHPS zones. Efforts to sustain them within the health system should include the provision of financial incentives.

Factors influencing the performance of community health workers: A qualitative study of Anganwadi Workers from Bihar, India.

Globally, there remain significant knowledge and evidence gaps around how to support Community Health Worker (CHW) programmes to achieve high coverage and quality of interventions. India’s Integrated Child Development Services scheme employs the largest CHW cadre in the world—Anganwadi Workers (AWWs). However, factors influencing the performance of these workers remain under researched. Lessons from it have potential to impact on other large scale global CHW programmes. A qualitative study of AWWs in the Indian state of Bihar was conducted to identify key drivers of performance in 2015. In-depth interviews were conducted with 30 AWWs; data was analysed using both inductive and deductive thematic analysis. The study adapted and contextualised existing frameworks on CHW performance, finding that factors affecting performance occur at the individual, community, programme and organisational levels, including factors not previously identified in the literature. Individual factors include initial financial motives and family support; programme factors include beneficiaries’ and AWWs’ service preferences and work environment; community factors include caste dynamics and community and seasonal migration; and organisational factors include corruption. The initial motives of the worker (the need to retain a job for family financial needs) and community expectations (for product-oriented services) ensure continued efforts even when her motivation is low. The main constraints to performance remain factors outside of her control, including limited availability of programme resources and challenging relationships shaped by caste dynamics, seasonal migration, and corruption. Programme efforts to improve performance (such as incentives, working conditions and supportive management) need to consider these complex, inter-related multiple determinants of performance. Our findings, including new factors, contribute to the global literature on factors affecting the performance of CHWs and have wide application.

Severe acute malnutrition treatment delivered by low-literate community health workers in South Sudan: A prospective cohort study.

BackgroundCommunity health worker (CHW)-delivered acute malnutrition treatment programs have been tested previously, but not with low-literate/-numerate cadres who operate in areas with the highest malnutrition burden and under-five mortality rates. The International Rescue Committee developed low-literacy-adapted tools and treatment protocol to enable low-literate/-numerate community-based distributors (CBD, the CHW cadre in South Sudan) to treat children for severe acute malnutrition (SAM) in their communities.MethodsWe conducted a prospective cohort study in March-September 2017, with 44 CBDs enrolling a total of 308 SAM children into treatment in their communities. Child treatment outcomes and length of treatment were documented. Uncomplicated SAM cases, defined for our study as children with mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) of 90 to <115 mm or bilateral pitting oedema, without any medical complications, were treated for up to 16 weeks, and were considered fully recovered when they reached MUAC≥125 mm for two consecutive weeks.ResultsThe recovery rate from the severe to the moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) cut-off of MUAC 115 mm was 91% (95% confidence interval (CI) = 88%-95%). The median length of treatment was five weeks. The recovery rate of children from SAM to full recovery was 75% (95% CI = 69%-81%). The median time to full recovery was eight weeks. The recovery rates reported here exclude children referred for care from the denominator, per standard reporting of acute malnutrition treatment recovery rates. When the data were compared against routine monitoring and evaluation data from nearby static clinics, children treated by CBDs appeared to have improved continuity of care and shorter time to recovery.ConclusionsThe recovery rate for SAM children enrolled in acute malnutrition treatment by low-literate CBDs shows promise that deploying CHWs to treat SAM in areas with high prevalence and low treatment access may lead to higher recovery, better continuity of care in the transition between SAM and MAM, and shorter treatment time. Proper adaptations of tools and protocols can empower CHW cadres with low literacy and numeracy to successfully complete treatment steps. Key questions of scalability and cost-effectiveness remain.

People-Centered Surveillance: A Systematic Review of the Implementation of Community-Based Surveillance Among Crisis-Affected Populations

Background: Large-scale epidemics often occur in fragile states, and expand rapidly due to late disease detection, delays in pathogen confirmation, and weakened public health systems. The WHO recommends community-based surveillance to rapidly detect disease events in complex environments, displacement camps, and during epidemics. As such, community-based surveillance contributes to a core capacity of the International Health Regulations for rapid detection and response at the community-level which can facilitate immediate control measures. Methods: Using PubMed and EMBASE without date restrictions, we conducted a systematic review of articles and evaluations on community-based surveillance to describe the characteristics of community-based surveillance systems by crisis context, and to document and compare effectiveness for disease detection. Findings: 27 articles describing 23 community-based surveillance systems met the criteria for inclusion. We found that community-based surveillance has the potential to provide sensitive disease detection capacity, produce valid data that can provide early warning and enable targeting of interventions for at-risk populations, and can continue to operate during periods of acute crisis. However, it has important operational requirements for continuous training and supervision of large cadres of community health workers and volunteers, verification of validity of cases and events detected, and provision of technical assistance for implementation. Interpretation: Community-based surveillance is an important means of front-line detection and surveillance of outbreaks. Like other community systems, it requires planning and resource mobilization for technical assistance, supervision, and monitoring of performance. CBS should be integrated into formal surveillance systems to support not only early warning, but rapid verification and response. Funding: There was no specific source of funding used for this article. Declaration of Interest: All authors declare that they have no competing interests. Ethical Approval: Not applicable; This review did not involve human participants, human data, or human tissue.

Reducing maternal and newborn mortality in Nigeria\u2014a qualitative study of stakeholders\u2019 perceptions about the performance of community health workers and the introduction of community midwifery at primary healthcare level

BackgroundRural communities in Nigeria account for high maternal and newborn mortality rates in the country. Thus, there is a need for innovative models of service delivery, possibly with greater community engagement. Introducing and strengthening community midwifery practice within the Nigerian primary healthcare system is a clear policy option. The potential of community midwifery to increase the availability of skilled care during pregnancy, at birth and within postpartum periods in the health systems of developing countries has not been fully explored. This study was designed to assess stakeholders’ perceptions about the performance of community health workers and the feasibility of introducing and using community midwifery to address the high maternal and newborn mortality within the Nigerian healthcare system.MethodsThis study was undertaken in two human resources for health (HRH) project focal states (Bauchi and Cross River States) in Nigeria, utilizing a qualitative research design. Interviews were conducted with 44 purposively selected key informants. Key informants were selected based on their knowledge and experience working with different cadres of frontline health workers at primary healthcare level. The qualitative data were audio-recorded, transcribed and then thematically analysed.ResultsSome study participants felt that introducing community midwifery will increase access to maternal and newborn healthcare services, especially in rural communities. Others felt that applying community midwifery at the primary healthcare level may lead to duplication of duties among the health worker cadres, possibly creating disharmony. Some key informants suggested that there should be concerted efforts to train and retrain the existing cadres of community health workers via the effective implementation of the task shifting policy in Nigeria, in addition to possibly revising the existing training curricula, instead of introducing community midwifery.ConclusionApplying community midwifery within the Nigerian healthcare system has the potential to increase the availability of skilled care during pregnancy, at birth and within postpartum periods, especially in rural communities. However, there needs to be broader stakeholder engagement, more awareness creation and the careful consideration of modalities for introducing and strengthening community midwifery training and practice within the Nigerian health system as well as within the health systems of other developing countries.

Approaches to support continued iCCM implementation during a flooding emergency in rural Bangladesh

BackgroundMore evidence is needed on how integrated community case management (iCCM) service delivery is affected and on how to maintain service availability during crises. This study documented the implementation of iCCM through two cadres of community health workers (community health care providers [CHCPs] and village doctors [VDs]) in communities that were affected by a 2015 flooding emergency in Bangladesh.MethodsWe conducted a retrospective case study to assess iCCM services provided by CHCPs and VDs during a flooding emergency that occurred from June to August 2015. We purposively selected nine unions within four sub-districts in Bhola District. In this mixed methods study, we analyzed trends in quantitative service delivery indicators over the time period from January 2015 to February 2016. Qualitative data were obtained through 28 in-depth interviews and 13 focus group discussions with policy makers, implementers, supervisors, CHCPs, VDs, community leaders, and caregivers of under-five children.ResultsAll stakeholders reported disruptions in iCCM service delivery and in access to CHCPs and VDs for community members. The quantitative data showed a 30% reduction in average number of children who received treatment from both CHCPs and VDs during flooding months compared to pre-flood months (from 2273/month to 1593/month). There was also an increase in the number of children referred by CHCPs and VDs, reduced supervision, and increased stock-outs of commodities during the flooding months. CHCPs and VDs, in collaboration with community members, came up with several locally adapted initiatives to maintain iCCM services, including changing clinic hours according to the tide, organizing temporary clinics at alternative sites that were located on higher ground, use of community boats to visit clients in their homes, and use of mobile phones for communication with supervisors and community members.ConclusionOur study results demonstrate that iCCM services can continue during a natural disaster, albeit with significant disruptions. Ad hoc adaptations to services by local implementers and community members were key in maintaining availability of services during the emergency. In future emergencies, service delivery could be significantly strengthened by enacting key preparedness activities prior to a natural disaster such as severe flooding.

A pilot study to evaluate home-based screening for the common non-communicable diseases by a dedicated cadre of community health workers in a rural setting in India

BackgroundPopulation-based screening for the common non-communicable diseases (NCD) is recommended but is difficult to implement in the hard-to-reach areas of low resourced countries. The objective of our pilot study was to evaluate the feasibility and the efficacy of delivering NCD screening services at home by trained community health workers (CHWs). Men and women aged 30-60 years residing in rural areas of India were targeted for screening.MethodsThe CHWs made home visits to educate the participants about healthy lifestyles and symptoms of common cancers and counsel the tobacco/alcohol users to quit. They measured height, weight, blood pressure (BP) and random blood sugar for all and performed oral visual examination (OVE) to screen the tobacco/alcohol users for oral cancer. For cervical cancer screening, the women themselves provided self-collected vaginal samples that the CHWs delivered to the laboratory for high-risk Human Papillomavirus (HPV) detection. The women were not screened for breast cancer but were made aware of the common symptoms and the importance of early diagnosis. Further assessment of the screen-positive individuals and the women with breast symptoms was arranged at the nearest primary health center (PHC).ResultsThe CHWs screened 1998 men and 4997 women from 20 villages within 6 months; the refusal rate was less than 10%. High BP and sugar were detected in 32.6% and 7.5% participants respectively; hypertension and diabetes were confirmed in 42.3% and 35% respectively among those undergoing follow-up. Obesity prevalence was only 2.4%. More than 50% men were tobacco chewers. Of the total participants, 2.6% were positive on OVE, though no oral cancer was detected among them. HPV test was positive in 8.6% women and they were triaged with visual inspection after application of acetic acid (VIA) test for treatment either by thermal ablation (same visit) or by loop excision. VIA was positive in 14% of the HPV-positive women and 56.5% of them received same day ablative treatment. The VIA-negative women were advised follow up after 1 year. No breast cancer was detected among the 0.6% women complaining of breast symptoms.ConclusionsDelivery of NCD screening services at home by trained CHWs is feasible and well-accepted by our study population.

Performance of low-literate community health workers treating severe acute malnutrition in South Sudan.

Previous studies have described barriers to access of childhood severe acute malnutrition (SAM) treatment, including long travel distances and high opportunity costs. To increase access in remote communities, the International Rescue Committee developed a simplified SAM treatment protocol and low-literacy-adapted tools for community-based distributors (CBD, the community health worker cadre in South Sudan) to deliver treatment in the community. A mixed-methods pilot study was conducted to assess whether low-literate CBDs can adhere to a simplified SAM treatment protocol and to examine the community acceptability of CBDs providing treatment. Fifty-seven CBDs were randomly selected to receive training. CBD performance was assessed immediately after training, and 44 CBDs whose performance score met a predetermined standard were deployed to test the delivery of SAM treatment in their communities. CBDs were observed and scored on their performance on a biweekly basis through the study. Immediately after training, 91% of the CBDs passed the predetermined 80% performance score cut-off, and 49% of the CBDs had perfect scores. During the study, 141 case management observations by supervisory staff were conducted, resulting in a mean score of 89.9% (95% CI: 86.4%-96.0%). For each performance supervision completed, the final performance score of the CBD rose by 2.0% (95% CI: 0.3%-3.7%), but no other CBD characteristic was associated with the final performance score. This study shows that low-literate CBDs in South Sudan were able to follow a simplified treatment protocol for uncomplicated SAM with high accuracy using low-literacy-adapted tools, showing promise for increasing access to acute malnutrition treatment in remote communities.

Evaluating the impact of a community health worker programme on non-communicable disease, malnutrition, tuberculosis, family planning and antenatal care in Neno, Malawi: protocol for a stepped-wedge, cluster randomised controlled trial

IntroductionThis protocol concerns the implementation and evaluation of an intervention designed to realign the existing cadre of community health workers (CHWs) in Neno district, Malawi to better support the care...

Challenges and opportunities of integration of community based Management of Acute Malnutrition into the government health system in Bangladesh: a qualitative study

BackgroundSevere acute malnutrition (SAM) in children is the most serious form of malnutrition and is associated with very high rates of morbidity and mortality. For sustainable SAM management, United Nations recommends integration of community based management of acute malnutrition (CMAM) into the health system. The objective of the study was to assess the preparedness of the health system to implement CMAM in Bangladesh.MethodsThe assessment was undertaken during January to May 2014 by conducting document review, key informant interviews, and direct observation. A total of 38 key informant interviews were conducted among government policy makers and program managers (n = 4), nutrition experts (n = 2), health and nutrition implementing partners (n = 2), development partner (n = 1), government health system staff (n = 5), government front line field workers (n = 22), and community members (n = 2). The assessment was based on: workforce, service delivery, financing, governance, information system, medical supplies, and the broad socio-political context.ResultsThe government of Bangladesh has developed inpatient and outpatient guidelines for the management of SAM. There are cadres of community health workers of government and non-government actors who can be adequately trained to conduct CMAM. Inpatient management of SAM is available in 288 facilities across the country. However, only 2.7% doctors and 3.3% auxiliary staff are trained on facility based management of SAM. In functional facilities, uninterrupted supply of medicines and therapeutic diet are not available. There is resistance and disagreement among nutrition stakeholders regarding import or local production of ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF). Nutrition coordination is fragile and there is no functional supra-ministerial coordination platform for multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder nutrition.ConclusionThere is an enabling environment for CMAM intervention in Bangladesh although health system strengthening is needed considering the barriers that have been identified. Training of facility based health staff, government community workers, and ensuring uninterrupted supply of medicines and logistics to the functional facilities should be the immediate priorities. Availability of ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) is a critical component of CMAM and government should promote in-country production of RUTF for effective integration of CMAM into the health system in Bangladesh.

Near universal childhood vaccination rates in Rwanda: how was this achieved and can it be duplicated?

Abstract Background According to data from the WHO Vaccine-Preventable Disease Monitoring System, Rwanda has achieved near universal childhood vaccination rates, with an overall national coverage rate for childhood immunisation of 98% in 2015. These rates are striking given the country's status as a post-conflict, post-genocide, and low-income country. In this study, we aimed to determine factors that contributed to the success of Rwanda's childhood immunisation programme. Methods We used primary and secondary sources to identify such factors. Primary research was conducted in August, 2017, in Eastern Province, Northern Province, and the city of Kigali, Rwanda. We used snow-ball sampling to recruit interviewees. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with government, multilateral organisations, and non-governmental staff members involved in the planning and delivery of Rwanda's immunisation programme. Secondary sources included review of primary databases, grey literature, and peer-reviewed literature that was identified through searches in Google Scholar and PubMed for articles written in English and published since Jan 1, 2000, using combinations of the search terms “Rwanda”, “vaccination”, “immunisation”, and “programme”. Findings 24 interviews were conducted and secondary data were analysed. Several factors have contributed to Rwanda's vaccination success. First, at the local level, an engaged cadre of community health workers sensitises communities on the importance of vaccinations and performs health surveillance duties. Second, an integrated health management information system guides vaccination procurement and distribution to support vaccine delivery at the local level. Third, at the governmental level, the vaccination programme is driven by strong political will to prioritise health. Fourth, implementation is sufficiently decentralised to the district and village level to tailor appropriate approaches for the local population. Fifth, the uniquely Rwandan practice of imihigo, which involves leaders at all levels of government (centrally and locally) signing performance contracts to achieve certain targets, enhances accountability and ownership. Finally, the Rwandan health system benefits from strong relationships with development partners and cross-over effects from global health initiatives, particularly in developing capacity for supply chain and cold chain management. Interpretation Although cultural factors such as imihigo differentiate Rwanda from demographically comparable countries, the success of the Rwandan vaccine programme is multifactorial. These factors include strong, high-level political will, multilevel accountability, effective use of funding, partnership with development partners, integrated health information, and community-level data collection. Countries aiming to improve coverage may wish to study and emulate these factors. Funding Mastercard Center for Inclusive Growth.