Cadaba Farinosa Research Articles

Behavioural studies on crude Ethanol leaf extract of Cadaba farinosa Forssk. in mice

Cadaba farinosa Forssk. (Capparaceae) is found all over the world, mostly in tropical and subtropical areas. It is used to treat pain, dysentery, rheumatism, cough, and fever, as well as an antidote and in the treatment of neurological disorders. In mice, the median lethal dose (LD50) of Crude Ethanol leaf Extract (CEE) of Cadaba farinosa was found to be 2154.1 mg/kg body weight. The presence of alkaloids, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, and tannins was discovered during a preliminary phytochemical analysis of the dark gummy mass crude extract. The CEE was then put through pharmacological testing on mice. In mice, diazepam-induced sleep, beam walking, and hole-board assays were used to investigate behavioral activities. CEE of Cadaba farinosa had no effect on the onset of sleep in mice when given at the tested doses of diazepam. In contrast, it significantly increased sleep duration at all doses tested (75 mg/kg p 0.001, 150 mg/kg p≤0.05, and 300 mg/kg p≤0.01). The CEE significantly (p≤0.01) increased the number of foot slips in the Beam walking assay at a dose of 150 mg/kg. Similarly, diazepam at 0.25 mg/kg increased the number of foot slips significantly (p≤0.001). The extract at a dose of 300 mg/kg and diazepam increased the time required to complete the task significantly (p≤0.05). At 150 mg/kg (p 0.01) and 300 mg/kg (p≤0.05), the hole-board experiment significantly reduced the number of head dips. In contrast, the standard drug (diazepam) had no discernible effect on the number of head dips. These findings suggest that CEE and Diazepam at the highest dose significantly affected the behaviour of mice in the beam walking assay. Thus, the extract showed no activity on the onset of sleep but significantly prolong duration of sleep at the tested doses. The CEE significantly produced a decrease in the exploratory behavioural pattern, indicative of the fact that CEE possesses sedative property.

Bacterial Removal Efficiency of Moringa stenopetala and Cadaba farinosa From Surface Water: Laboratory-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

Background:Consumption of polluted surface waters are leading to waterborne diseases, especially in developing countries, which results in the deaths of millions of people annually around the world. Ethiopia, like the rest of developing countries, suffers a lot of water-associated health problems. Chemical disinfectants are in use to disinfect water with some drawbacks like expensiveness, unavailability, and detrimental effect on human health. Researchers are on the search for non-expensive and locally available methods, and natural plants are the ones in the study. Thus, this study is designed to test Escherichia coli (E. coli) removal efficiency of Moringa stenopetala (M. stenopetala) and Cadaba farinosa (C. farinosa) from surface water.Methods:A cross-sectional study was conducted from June to July 2021. A 14 L water sample was collected from Lake Hawassa. A 30, 60, and 100 mg weights of the leaf and seed powder dosages of M. stenopetala and C. farinosa at contaminant settling times of 30, 60, and 90 minutes were used. Each 1-L water sample was treated with each of the dosages. E. coli count, temperature, pH and turbidity were measured using standard methods for water and wastewater analysis. Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version.23 was used for analysis. Treatment differences between plant parts and association between variables were also tested.Result:The result indicated that raw water samples having 18 initial E. coli colonies per 100 mL of water showed zero E. coli colonies per 100 mL of water after treatment with 30 mg dosage of M. stenopetala seed, 30 mg dosage of C. farinosa seed, and 60 mg dosage of M. stenopetala leaf after 90 minutes of settling time, but C. farinosa leaf was unable to reduce E. coli colonies to 0 per 100 mL of water. M. stenopetala leaf showed the highest turbidity reduction of 83.3% at 60 mg dosage. A pH of 7.30 and 8.50 and a temperature of 20°C to 23.5°C were recorded. There was a significant difference in E. coli removal between C. farinosa seed and leaf. Turbidity was identified as a factor that positively affects E. coli removal during M. stenopetala seed and leaf. Dosage and settling time were also identified as predictors of E. coli removal.Conclusion:M. stenopetala and C. farinosa have antimicrobial properties against E. coli, but only M. stenopetala showed E. coli, turbidity, and pH values within the recommended World Health Organization standards. So, we suggest M. stenopetala as a promising natural disinfectant that needs attention from organizations working on the water.

Characterizing the existing woodland forest to determine forest habitat management options in Gamogofa zone, southern Ethiopia

Ethiopian woodlands are vital for the conservation of plant diversity, including genetic pools of Combretum-Terminalia woodland. However, the woodlands are continuously shrinking and need empirical scientific studies for their effective conservation and sustainable management. These studies was, therefore, conducted to characterizing the existing woodland forest and synthesize literature to determine forest habitat management options in Gamogofa zone, southern parts of Ethiopia. A total of 30 (20 m × 20 m) quadrants for tree/shrubs and 5 m × 5 m for sapling and seedlings were sampled to identify and describe composition, population structure, species diversity, regeneration status, and importance value index (IVI) of woodland forest species. The analysis was done by excel, and results show that a total of 57 woody plant species were recorded. The study site woodland species, were 327 (11.36%) trees/shrubs, 2344 (81.45%) saplings, and 207 (7.19%) seedlings. The value of the Shannon diversity index and evenness were recorded 2.66 and 0.87, respectively. Combretum adenogonium had the highest IVI followed by Acacia mellifera, Euclea divinorum, Cadaba farinosa, Balanites aegyptiaca and accounted for 44% of the total species. Combretum paniculatum, Ficus ovata, Strychnos innocua, Grewia bicolor and Cordia africana were species with lower IVI. The ratio of seedlings and saplings to mature individuals was 0.7:3, respectively. The entire woodlands are good, fair and poor regeneration was recorded 0, 67%, and 33% respectively. 18% of the species had neither seedlings nor saplings. The forest has no good regeneration of species, so it needs immediate management intervention to conserve biodiversity and protect the ecosystem services.

Protein Quality Evaluation of Raw and Processed Seeds of Cadaba farinosa Forssk and Growth Performance of Albino Rats Fed with the Products

Cadaba farinosa Forssk is a wild shrub whose seeds are eaten as a famine food in North Eastern Nigeria when there is poor harvest of conventional crops. This research was carried out in order to evaluate the protein quality of the seeds and to carry out the growth performance of experimental animals fed on seeds processed by different methods. The processed methods include cooking, cooking with the addition of potash, fermentation and sprouting. PTH-Amino acid analyzer was used to determine the amino acid profile and milk reference protein was used for scoring the essential amino acids. The products were fed to weaning albino rats for 28 days growth performance studies. The determination of nitrogen content of the feed, faeces, urine and the carcass of the animals were carried out by Kjeldahl method. Protein quality evaluation of the processed products was carried out by calculating the Biological Value (BV), Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), Net Protein Utilization (NPU) and The Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acids Score (PDCAAS). Results of Amino acid analysis showed that the sample cooked with addition of potash contain higher levels of amino acids. Glutamic acid was found to the most abundant amino acid with a value of 11.96 g/ 100 g and 13.96 g/ 100 g in the sprouted and raw seeds respectively. Chemical score of amino acids revealed higher score for protein of seeds cooked with addition of potash except tryptophan which was 219.29% for seeds cooked without potash. The highest PDCAAS (49.84%) was found in the diet cooked with potash, however, it showed lower biological value (95%) and protein efficiency ratio (0.32). The group fed with sprouted diet showed significant increase (P=.05) in body weight (52.13%). Though cooking with addition of potash showed higher distribution of amino acids, but sprouting and fermentation were more promising in terms of promoting the growth of the experimental animals.

Studies on antioxidant activity of different extracts of aerial parts of Cadaba farinose Forsk: An in-vitro techniques

Cadaba farinosa (family Capparidaceae) is generally known as “Indian cadaba” in the traditional ayurvedic system. The current study, aerial parts of different concentrates (Pet.ether, ethyl acetate and methanol) of Cadaba farinose was evaluated for its in-vitro antioxidant potential by Diphenylpicrylhydrazyl radical, and total antioxidant activity taking ascorbate as standard and superoxide radical activity taking Quercetin as the standard for the in-vitro methods. The methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose& ascorbic acid exhibited antioxidant potential possessing IC50 208µg/ml & 66µg/ml (Diphenylpicrylhydrazyl radical) , 188µg/ml & 57µg/ml (total antioxidant). The methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose & quercetin exhibited antioxidant potential possessing IC50 252µg/ml & 60µg/ml (superoxide radical). The IC50 value was originated that methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose more efficient in Diphenylpicrylhydrazyl radical, superoxide radical activity, total antioxidant activity compared EA & PE concentrates. The difference in scavenging potential of the extracts can be due to variation in the percentage of bioactive compound present in different solvents. Invitro antioxidant studies show methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose have better antioxidant activity. This result indicates that aerial parts of methanolic concentrate Cadaba farinose could serve as a natural antioxidant, which may be useful in preventing free radical-induced diseases.

Estimation of total phenolic content and Studies on antioxidant activity of different extracts of Cadaba farinose Forsk by hydroxy radical and iron chelating techniques

Cadaba farinosa (family Capparidaceae) is generally known as “Indian cadaba” in the traditional ayurvedic system. The current study, aerial parts of different concentrates (Pet.ether, ethyl acetate and methanol) of Cadaba farinose was evaluated for its in-vitro antioxidant potential by hydroxy radical taking ascorbate as a standard. The iron-chelating activity is taking Ethylenediamine tetraacetate as standard and estimation of total phenol content as equivalent to mg/g of Gallic acid. The methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose & ascorbic acid exhibited antioxidant potential possessing IC50 205µg/ml & 65µg/ml (Hydroxy radical) , methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose & Ethylenediamine tetraacetate exhibited antioxidant potential possessing IC50 240µg/ml & 70µg/ml (iron-chelating activity). The methanolic and EA concentrates of Cadaba farinose contain total phenolic content 9.86 ± 0.62 and 3.98 ± 0.54, respectively. The IC50 value was originated that methanolic concentrates of Cadaba farinose more efficient in hydroxy radical, iron chelating activity compared EA & PE concentrates. The methanolic extract of Cadaba farinose having more free radical activity due to the presence of phenolic content as a bioactive compound. This result indicates that aerial parts of methanolic concentrate Cadaba farinose could serve as a natural antioxidant, which may be useful in preventing free radical-induced diseases.

Exomorphic Characters of Seeds of Some Species of Capparaceae Family in Taif, KSA

Seed exomorphic characters of six species belonging to four genera of family Capparaceae were studied using light microscope (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in order to determine the importance of seed features as taxonomic evidence. These species are Cadaba farinosa Forssk, Capparis decidua (Forssk). Edgew, Capparis cartilaginea Decne, Dipterygium glaucum Decne, Maerua crassifolia Forssk and Maerua oblongifolia (Forssk.) A. Rich. The diagnostic characters at level of the general and specific level are shape of seed, size, color, texture and seed coat surface. There is a wide range of variations of seed shape among the studied species. LM revealed that the studied seeds are mostly varying from ovate to globose or cardiac- shape. All of the seeds lack wings except Dipterygium glaucum Decne. and most of the seed is coarse texture. There are six main types of seed surface sculptures revealed by SEM investigation at higher magnifications; reticulate, rugose-striate, winding undulate, ribbed and papillate.

Determination of Haematological Effects of Aqueous Leaf Extract of Cadaba Farinosa in Adult Wistar Rats

Haematological parameters are frequently used to evaluate functional characteristics of blood and blood forming organs. Assessments of these parameters are not limited to established diagnosis of deleterious diseases nor prognosis, but also relating the blood functions of plant extracts. Plant extracts are alternative remedies in the managements of blood related disorders in developing countries including anaemia, neutropenia and thrombocytopenia. Anti-sickling property modelling entities that inhibit and reverse sequence of pathological processes leading to sickling was reported in Fagara zanthoxyloides, Khaya senegalensis and Garlic, possessing similar phytochemicals as Cadaba farinosa forsk is a rich natural source of alkaloids, flavonoids and terpenoids with antioxidant properties against oxidative damage. It's possess antithrombotic and vasoprotective properties. Bioflavonoids of Cadaba farinosa forsk demonstrated significant cytotoxicity against panel of cancerous cells. However, a possible haematological effect of Cadaba farinosa forsk is unevaluated. This study investigated effects of oral administration of aqueous leaf extracts of the plant. Twelve adult Wistar rats were divided into four groups of three rats (n=30). Group 1served as negative control. Extract administered to groups (2, 3 and 4) following 28 days consecutively at dose levels 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg, showed no significant change in RBC count compared with control group (p>0.05). PCV, PLT and HGB were not significant (P>0.05). However, there was significant elevation of WBC at 300mg/kg (p=0.02, 4.28±2.38) (p<0.05). Our finding also revealed statistically significant difference at 200 and 300mg/kg of MCHC (304.50±3.54, 303.00±5.66) compared to control (P<0.05). Hence, chronic toxicity studies are needed to further support the use of this plant for treatments.

Sedentarization among nomadic pastoralists of Uganda: which way to feed livestock?

Pastoral nomadic communities of East Africa’s drylands are gradually shifting towards a sedentary type of production. However, successful animal production under such settings demands for integrated on-farm management of the various animal feed resources. The objective of this study was to characterize feed resources of goats in the pastoral area of Karamoja sub-region, a dry land area in northeastern Uganda. Structured interviews were conducted involving 300 randomly selected households. Results revealed seventy plant species distributed in 31 families were fed to goats. The species were dominated by browses (trees and shrubs) 54%; herbs 21%; grasses 19%; climbers and hedges 5%. Balanites aegyptica, Grewia similis, Acacia sieberiana, Acalypha fruticosa, Acacia albida and Cadaba farinosa were the most frequently mentioned browse species. Farmers also use these species for other purposes notably building, human and livestock medicine, fencing, firewood and as vegetables during the dry season. Browses were available throughout the year unlike grasses and crop residues that were available seasonally. Since browses were available throughout the year in addition to being multipurpose, it is recommended that current efforts to actualize a sedentary lifestyle among Karamoja pastoralists integrate the planting and management of the most reported browse species in this study.

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory studies on crude ethanol extract of <i>Cadaba farinosa</i> Forssk leaf in mice and rats

The plant Cadaba farinosa Forssk. is used in the treatment of pains, dysentery, rheumatism, cough, and fever. Phytoconstituents include alkaloids, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins and tannins. The intraperitoneal LD 50 of the crude ethanol leaf extract (CEE) was found to be 2154.1 mg/kg body weight in mice. The analgesic activity was investigated using acetic acid-induced writhing and hot plate tests in mice while Antiinflammation potential was investigated using carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema in rats. The extract at all the doses tested and piroxicam produced significant decrease in number of writhes at p ≤ 0.05 for extract and piroxicam compared to normal saline group. There was a significant increase (p≤ 0.01) in the pain-reaction time for thermally induced pain at 30 min of both 300 mg/kg CEE and 20 mg/kg pentazocine (standard drug). At 60 min, the significant increase (p≤ 0.05) was at 75 mg/kg CEE and 20 mg/kg pentazocine when compared to the control. The highest significant increase in mean pain reaction time for 75, 150 mg/kg CEE and pentazocine was observed at 90 min compared to the normal saline group. There was no significant difference in the mean pain latency time for thermally-induced pain between CEE and pentazocine for doses tested at 30, 60 and 120 min except for pentazocine with significant increase of p≤ 0.05 compared to the control group. There was generally a significant reduction (p ≤ 0.01) in mean paw diameter for both the extract and piroxicam treated groups compared to control group throughout the study. Keywords: Analgesic activity, Cadaba farinosa , acetic acid, carrageenan, pain, writhes, hot plate, paw oedema

An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and edible plants of Yalo Woreda in Afar regional state, Ethiopia

BackgroundThe Afar people inhabit the sub-arid and arid part of Ethiopia. Recurrent drought and invasive encroaching plants are taking out plants that have cultural importance, and threaten the biodiversity and the associated traditional knowledge. Thus, the aim of the current study is to conduct an ethnobotanical survey and document medicinal and edible plants in Yalo Woreda in Afar regional state.MethodsA cross-sectional ethnobotanical study was carried out in eight kebeles of Yalo Woreda from October 2015 to December 2016. One hundred sixty informants were selected using purposive sampling. The data on diseases, medicinal and edible plants were collected using semi-structure interview and group discussion. The statistical methods, informant consensus factor, fidelity level, and preference ranking were conducted to analyze the data.ResultsOne hundred and six plants were reported; gender and age differences had implication on the number of plants reported by informants. The knowledge of medicinal plants among informants of each kebele was not different (p < 0.5) and was not associated in particular with the religious establishment in the kebeles (informant*kebeles, Eta square = 0.19). Family Fabaceae was the major plant species, and shrubs (44%) were dominant plants reported. Leaf (52.94%) and oral (68%) were primary plant part used for remedy preparation and route of application, respectively. The plants with low fidelity values Indigofera articulata (0.25), Cadaba farinosa (0.22), Cadaba rotundifolia (0.19), and Acalypha fruticosa (0.15) were used to treat the category of diseases with high informant consensus value (0.69). Sixteen edible plants were identified that were consumed during wet and dry seasons. Balanites aegyptiaca, Balanites rotundifolia, and Dobera glabra were ‘famine food’ that were collected and stored for years.ConclusionPeople in Yalo Woreda are more dependent on natural resources of the area for their livelihood. The threat of climatic change and encroaching invasive plants on medicinal and edible plants affects the traditional use of plants in the Yalo Woreda. The conservation of the plants in the home garden and natural habitat and integration of edible plants into agroforestry development programs in sub-arid and arid regions has to be encouraged to conserve plants of medical and economic importance.

Assessment on the Use, Knowledge and Conservation of Medicinal Plants in Selected Kebeles of Dire Dawa Administration, Eastern Ethiopia

The aim of the study was to assess and document the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used in the communities and preserve it to be used by the next generations. Ten study sites (kebeles) were selected based on a reconnaissance survey and recommendations of elders and local authorities. The study was carried out in two different seasons, from September to November, 2014 and from June to August, 2015. Eighty informants including twenty traditional herbalists (as key informants) participated in the study. Semi-structured interviews, group discussions and guided field walk constituted the main data collection methods. Techniques of Preference Ranking, Informant consensus Factor, Fidelity level index and Pearson correlation were employed in data analysis. Medicinal plant specimens were collected identified and kept at the National Herbarium (ETH) of Addis Ababa University. A total of 129 plant species in 61 families and 109 genera constituting herbs (50%), trees (24%), shrubs (23%) and climbers (3%) were reported in the treatment of various health problems. Family Fabaceae was dominant representing 8.5 % of the plant species documented. Leaves (29.4 %) were the most frequently used parts in preparing herbal remedies. Crushing (29 %) and oral route (61%) were commonly used methods of herbal remedy preparation and administration, respectively. Health conditions grouped in 22 categories were treated using medicinal plants. Informant consensus factor was highest for mental illness, poisonous animal bite and head ache and fatigue that had ICF values of 1, 0.61 and 0.60, respectively. Sphaeranthus suaveolens, Barleria orbicularis, Solanum sepiculum and Cadaba farinosa had a fidelity level of 100% this indicated their outstanding preference for treating mental illness, snake bite and swollen body part (GOFLA). There was a positive correlation (r =0.48) between the age of informants and the number of species reported by the informants. However, there was a negative correlation (r = -0.26) between the number of species reported and informants’ educational level. The present paper represents significant ethnobotanical information on medical plants which provides baseline data for future pharmacological and phytochemical studies.

The in vitro anthelmintic properties of browse plant species against Haemonchus contortus is determined by the polyphenol content and composition

The aims of the present study were to (a) evaluate the anthelmintic activity of 10 East African browse plant extracts, (b) examine their role in inhibition of Haemonchus contortus larval exsheathment, (c) establish relationship between inhibition of larval exsheathment and browse plant extract polyphenol composition. Acetone/water (70/30%) extracts of air dried leaves of Acacia etbaica, Cadaba farinosa, Capparis tomentosa, Dichrostachys cinerea, Dodonaea angustifolia, Euclea racemosa, Maerua angolensis, Maytenus senegalensis, Rhus natalensis and Senna singueana were used. The larval exsheathment inhibition assay (LEIA) was applied using H. contortus third stage larvae (L3) and browse plant extract concentrations of 0, 150, 300, 600, 1200μg/ml in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Data were analysed using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS. Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP) was used to evaluate whether polyphenols were involved in L3 exsheathment inhibition. All browse plant extracts significantly (P≤0.001) inhibited larval exsheathment in a dose dependent manner. The dose required to inhibit 50% of the larvae (EC50) was highest in C. farinosa and lowest in E. racemosa and M. senegalensis. Significant differences (P<0.001) between the control and PVPP treated A. etbaica, C. tomentosa, M. angolensis, R. natalensis and D. cinerea indicates that larval inhibition was largely due to non-phenol compounds. For E. racemosa, M. senegalensis, D. angustifolia and S. singueana, PVPP treatment reversed inhibition activity and in these extracts, inhibition was mostly attributable to tannin and other polyphenols (kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin based glycosides). Overall, the browse plant extracts have anthelmintic property against H. contortus and larval inhibition resulting from the presence of phenolic and non-phenolic compounds.

Preference of goats (Capra hircus L.) for tanniniferous browse species available in semi-arid areas in Ethiopia.

The objectives were to determine browse species preference of goats using dry matter intake (DMI) as a proxy, to compare preference when offered in combination with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and to establish relationships between browse species intake and chemical compositional data. Air-dried leaves of Acacia etbaica, Cadaba farinosa, Capparis tomentosa, Dichrostachys cinerea, Dodonaea angustifolia, Euclea racemosa, Maerua angolensis, Maytenus senegalensis, Rhus natalensis and Senna singueana were used. Two cafeteria trials, each lasting 10days, were conducted using four local mature male goats of 2-2.5years receiving a daily ration of grass hay (4% of body weight) and 200g wheat bran. In trial 1, goats were offered 25g of each browse species for a total of 30min with intake, time spent on consumption and the number of visits to specific browse species recorded at 10-min intervals. In trial 2, the same procedure was followed except that 25g of PEG 4000 was added to the daily wheat bran ration. Crude protein and neutral detergent fibre in browse species ranged from 69.0-245.5 to 159.8-560.6g/kg dry matter (DM) respectively. Total phenols and total tannins contents ranged between 3.7-70.6 and 2.5-68.1mg tannic acid equivalent/g DM, respectively, and condensed tannins 1.7-18.4 Abs550nm /g DM. Preference indicators measured in the first 10min of browse species intake differed significantly among browse species and with PEG (p<0.0001). Principal components explained 69.9% of the total variation in browse species DMI. Despite the high tannin levels, D.cinerea, R.natalensis and A.etbaica were the most preferred species regardless of PEG presence. Tannin levels at the observed browse species DMI did not determine preference, instead, preference appeared to be based on hemicellulose. Determining browse species preference is essential to exploit them to improve nutrient utilization and control parasites in goats.

Studies on phenolic content and proximate analysis of the leaves of &lt;i&gt;Cadaba farinosa&lt;/i&gt; (Capparaceae) grown in Lake Chad Research Institute, Borno State, Nigeria

The study aimed at investigating the total phenolic content and the proximate composition of the leaves of Cadaba farinosa . with a view to validate its nutritional and medicinal benefit to man. The plant material was collected from the Lake Chad Research Institute in Borno State, Nigeria. Proximate analysis was conducted following methods of Association of Official Analytical Chemists. The percentage values of moisture, ash, protein, fibre and carbohydrate available were 4.40, 25.32, 13.39, 7.25 and 36.76 respectively. The total phenolic content of the plant was 173.91 mg/g GAE. Phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and anthraquinones were found present in the plant material. In conclusion, the study of the leaves of C. farinosa revealed moderate to high composition of very important food nutrients. Keywords: Proximate analysis; Phyto-constituents; Phenolic content; Cadaba farinosa

English

The mashing and brewing potentials of crude extracts of three plants commonly used in Northern Cameroon to make starch gruels sweet were assessed using sorghum cultivarSafrari as an adjunct. Alpha-amylase activities of the extracts fluctuated between 18 and 122 U/g, while the diastatic power and the β-carboxypeptidase activities ranged between 83 and 123 WK, and 16 and 63 mg FAN/min/µL, respectively. A longer mashing time (180 min) was necessary to obtain higher yields of extracts. Extract obtained was 18.7 °P for malted Safrari, 14.6 °P for malted barley, and 9.5, 13.5 and 11.4 °P after mashing Safrariadjuncts with extracts from Abrus precatorius, Burnatia enneandra and Cadaba farinose,respectively. Similar levels of reducing sugars ranging between 60 and 65 g/L were obtained when mashing was carried out using A. precatorius, B. enneandra and crude extracts, but about 50 g/L were obtained for C. farinosa. Free amino nitrogen fluctuated between 56 and 72 mg/L for C. farinose and B. enneandra, respectively, but was as low as 17 mg/L for A. precatorius. Fermentability was low for the worts obtained after mashingSafrari adjuncts using the extracts of the three plants, as compared to the worts of malted sorghum cultivar Safrari and barley. Key words: Abrus precatorius, Burnatia enneandra, Cadaba farinosa, α-amylase, extract,free amino nitrogen (FAN).

Indirect effects of domestic and wild herbivores on butterflies in an African savanna

Indirect interactions driven by livestock and wild herbivores are increasingly recognized as important aspects of community dynamics in savannas and rangelands. Large ungulate herbivores can both directly and indirectly impact the reproductive structures of plants, which in turn can affect the pollinators of those plants. We examined how wild herbivores and cattle each indirectly affect the abundance of a common pollinator butterfly taxon, Colotis spp., at a set of long-term, large herbivore exclosure plots in a semiarid savanna in central Kenya. We also examined effects of herbivore exclusion on the main food plant of Colotis spp., which was also the most common flowering species in our plots: the shrub Cadaba farinosa. The study was conducted in four types of experimental plots: cattle-only, wildlife-only, cattle and wildlife (all large herbivores), and no large herbivores. Across all plots, Colotis spp. abundances were positively correlated with both Cadaba flower numbers (adult food resources) and total Cadaba canopy area (larval food resources). Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that floral resources drove the abundance of Colotis butterflies. Excluding browsing wildlife increased the abundances of both Cadaba flowers and Colotis butterflies. However, flower numbers and Colotis spp. abundances were greater in plots with cattle herbivory than in plots that excluded all large herbivores. Our results suggest that wild browsing herbivores can suppress pollinator species whereas well-managed cattle use may benefit important pollinators and the plants that depend on them. This study documents a novel set of ecological interactions that demonstrate how both conservation and livelihood goals can be met in a working landscape with abundant wildlife and livestock.

Influences of fallow age and season on the foraging behavior and diet selection pattern of goats (Capra hircus L.)

A study was undertaken to determine the foraging behavior and diet selection pattern of goats maintained on communal exclosures in relation to the influence of fallow age (years since effective protection initiated; <8 years vs. >12 years) and season (long rainy, dry, and short rainy seasons). The frequency of browsing was higher ( P < 0.05) in the exclosures fallowed for >12 years compared to those fallowed for <8 years and this frequency was also highest during the short rainy season. More ( P < 0.05) herbaceous bites were recorded in the <8 years fallow exclosures, compared to the >12 years fallow exclosures. Herbaceous species bites were maximized during the long rainy season whereas woody species bites were maximized during the dry season. The goats foraged upon 48 plant species of which 69% were woody species, 19% grasses, and the rest comprised of various forb species. The top species that significantly ( P < 0.05) contributed to the diet of goats were Acacia etbaica , Balanites aegyptica , Cadaba farinosa , Capparis tomentosa , Dichrostachys cinerea , and Ocimum forskolei . The goats targeted taller woody species than the average of the exclosures. Maurea angolensis , Jasminium abyssinicum , C. farinosa , and Ormocarpum pubescence were among the preferred species that appeared to be on the verge of disappearance in most of the exclosures investigated in this study and require immediate attention. Using goats to reduce the threat of potential bush infestation appears to be a viable option for managing and sustaining production from exclosures since the goats showed preference for D. cinerea , the species considered a prolific invader plant. There is, however, a need to conduct further research on the impacts of direct browsing by the goats and this should also entail the determination of optimum number of goats/unit area.

Seasonal variations in the chemical composition and dry matter degradability of exclosure forages in the semi-arid region of northern Ethiopia

The present study was conduced at two sites (Tembien and Wukro) in the semi-arid region of Tigray in northern Ethiopia to investigate the seasonal dynamics in the chemical composition and dry matter digestibility of grass and browse species of exclosures. The browse species studied in Tembien and Wukro had a mean crude protein (CP) value of 166 and 117 g/kg dry matter (DM), respectively. The mean in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) coefficient and predicted metabolizable energy (ME) density of the browse species were 0.72 and 9.83 MJ/kg DM, respectively at Tembien, 0.62 and 8.38 MJ/kg DM, respectively, at Wukro. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) values of the browse species varied from 192 to 437 and 127 to 391 g/kg DM, respectively. Acid detergent lignin (ADL) values ranged from 36 to 190 g/kg DM. The mean CP of the grass species in Tembien and Wukro during the long rainy season was 76 and 73 g/kg DM, respectively and values declined below a critical maintenance level during the dry and short rain seasons. Mean IVDMD and ME values for the two sites were 0.41 and 0.47, and 5.38 and 6.11 MJ/kg DM, respectively. The NDF, ADF, and lignin values of the grass species were generally above 700, 400, and 70 g/kg DM, respectively. The CP, IVDMD and ME values of the mixed grass samples differed (P<0.05) among harvesting months and values ranged from 20 to 103 g/kg DM, 0.47 to 0.72 MJ/kg DM, and 6.16 to 9.91 MJ/kg DM, respectively. The browse species could be used as useful dry season protein supplements to the N deficient native grass species. Especial emphasis should be given to propagate Maerua angolensis and Cadaba farinosa at community nursery sites. Harvesting in September, rather than the current extended harvest period that took place in October and November, can considerably improve the feeding value of native grass hay for smallholder ruminant production systems.

Impact of Macrotermes termitaria as a source of heterogeneity on tree diversity and structure in a Sudanian savannah under controlled grazing and annual prescribed fire (Burkina Faso)

Macrotermes termitaria are conspicuous features of savannah ecosystems in the Sudanian and Sahelian zones of West Africa. The mounds, alive or abandoned, are a major source of heterogeneity in the landscape. The purpose of the present study was to assess the impact of termitaria on tree community in a state forest of the Sudanian regional centre (Tiogo forest, Burkina Faso), under controlled burning and grazing experiments. A comparative inventory was carried out in a split-plot experiment (16 subplots of 2500 m 2): 8 subplots where fire regime and grazing were controlled and 8 subplots exposed to grazing and with annual prescribed fire since 1992. All tree individuals (≥1.5 m) were recorded, both on termitaria and outside and their basal area at stump level was measured. A total of 61 observed (or 65.7 ± 2.4 estimated) tree species were recorded on 28 Macrotermes subhyalinus mounds (54 observed species or 60.8 ± 3.3 estimated), the immediate surroundings (44 observed and 59.0 ± 0.0 estimated species) and the rest of subplots (56 observed and 63.6 ± 0.0 estimated). Specific density was higher on mounds in comparison with the surroundings ( P < 0.05). Results showed that termitaria played a key role in maintaining higher species diversity as compared to their surroundings ( P < 0.05). Differences in species diversity between termitaria and immediate surroundings appeared more pronounced in disturbed plots (submitted to both fire and grazing). Some species, such as Tamarindus indica, Boscia senegalensis, Cadaba farinosa, Capparis sepiaria and Maerua angolensis are found solely on termitaria. Besides, the density of trees was significantly higher on termitaria compared to the surrounding ( P < 0.05), as well as total basal area per unit of 100 m 2 area ( P < 0.05). We concluded that Macrotermes termitaria play an important role as a source of heterogeneity in this Sudanian savannah woodland ecosystem. This role is particularly important in ecosystems under stresses. Termitaria acted as refuge for tree vegetation. The density and dynamics of M. subhyalinus termitaria should, therefore, be taken into account in the global strategy of the forest resources management and conservation.