Cabo Pulmo Research Articles

Orca (Orcinus orca) and shark predator-prey interactions within Cabo Pulmo National Park in the Gulf of California, Mexico

Orcas (Orcinus orca) have a worldwide distribution and as apex predators feed on a wide variety of prey, including marine mammals, seabirds, sea turtles, cephalopods, teleost fish and elasmobranchs. Historically, there have been few observations of orca predation on large elasmobranch species nor are they commonly identified in the stomach contents of deceased orcas. In recent years there has been an increase in observational records of orca predation, such as on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in South Africa, which could indicate that elasmobranchs serve a greater importance in their diet than previously considered. These events are often documented by members of the public due to the development and affordability of innovative cameras, including the use of the drones (unoccupied aerial vehicles). Here we describe new predator-prey interactions between orcas and large shark species in Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP), a small no-take marine protected area located in the Gulf of California. In this paper, we were able to successfully identify individuals from the described orca pods in the region; specifically, the same individuals hunting sharks over a period of nearly two years. We discuss the potential implications of these new ecological interactions, given the importance of tourism to sustain the management of CPNP, as cascading impacts have been documented elsewhere in light of orca predations on sharks.

Seasonal occurrence and individual variability of bull sharks, Carcharhinus leucas, in a marine reserve of the southwestern Gulf of California.

Studying how the bull sharks aggregate and how they can be driven by life history traits such as reproduction, prey availability, predator avoidance and social interaction in a National Park such as Cabo Pulmo, is key to understand and protect the species. The occurrence variability of 32 bull sharks tracked with passive acoustic telemetry were investigated via a hierarchical logistic regression model, with inference conducted in a Bayesian framework, comparing sex, and their response to temperature and chlorophyll. Based on the fitted model, occurrence probability varied by sex and length. Juvenile females had the highest values, whereas adult males the lowest. A strong seasonality or day of the year was recorded, where sharks were generally absent during September-November. However, some sharks did not show the common pattern, being detected just for a short period. This is one of the first studies where the Bayesian framework is used to study passive acoustic telemetry proving the potential to be used in further studies.

Settlement Chronology and Subsistence Patterns in Cabo Pulmo, Baja California Sur, Mexico

ABSTRACT Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP), within the East Cape of Baja California Sur, Mexico, is the location of a highly productive rocky reef ecosystem that was likely attractive to people throughout the Holocene. AMS radiocarbon dates from sites along the coast and faunal data from two excavated sites, D20 and D27, indicate people were present in the region by at least 7120–6755 cal b.p. (D34), but evidence of persistent occupation and possibly higher population densities postdates 2110–1945 cal b.p. (D27, Unit 1). The most prominent sites with intact stratified archaeological deposits appear to be focused adjacent to prominent rocky points, where assemblages include a variety of marine mollusks, fish, birds, terrestrial and marine mammals, and sea turtle remains. At both D20 and D27, there is evidence people targeted small fishes including sardines, likely with nets. This study highlights the strong archaeological potential in CPNP to address questions about human coastal adaptations and population history during the Holocene, emphasizing the importance of protecting cultural resources in an area at risk from growing tourism and residential development.

Pearls before swine flu: Crisis and the politics of resilience in Cabo Pulmo, BCS, Mexico

AbstractThis article employs a long‐term historical and anthropological perspective to examine questions of resilience through a case study of Cabo Pulmo, BCS, Mexico. Using the recent COVID‐19 crisis as a starting point, this article discusses the crises, shocks, booms, and busts that have affected and shaped the people, landscapes, and ecologies of the coastline that now includes Cabo Pulmo. While the community of Cabo Pulmo has been able to withstand several crises and disruptions, and could be considered “resilient” in many senses, I argue that this resilience is ongoing and conditional. Furthermore, the production of this resilience in Cabo Pulmo is highly contingent upon a strategic politics, enacted by the local community, that establishes, protects, and maintains claims to both land and place. Resilience, I argue, can be seen as an ongoing politics and strategic positionality, rooted in historical relations and connections to place, that people seek to create, maintain, and deploy at various scales to mediate and resist periodic shocks, threats, and disruptions.

Contramedidas en Cabo Pulmo: La ciencia y la judicialización de conflictos ambientales en México

AbstractThe judicialization of environmental conflicts in Mexico has generated a growing demand for legal evidence of environmental damages and risks to ecosystems and communities. When conflicts arise over large development projects, one opposition strategy consists of denouncing errors in a project's Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or procedural errors in its evaluation by federal authorities. Volunteer scientists collaborate with local communities and nonprofit organizations to diagnose technical errors in the EIS and develop “countermeasures” of risks that can be used to contest projects in court. This article analyzes a paradigmatic case of independent EIS review that occurred to oppose a tourism megadevelopment project adjoining the Cabo Pulmo National Marine Park in Baja California Sur. Confronted with the contraction of the political sphere in Mexico, this administrative tactic of political struggle appears as a viable alternative to directly challenging powerful elites. The Cabo Pulmo case highlights evolving relationships between science, environmental governance, and emergent forms of political mobilization in Latin America.

Community structure and biomass of larval euphausiids and postlarval mysids in relation to anomalous warming events during a weekly time series (2014–2017) at Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico

Euphausiids and mysids are important components of pelagic ecosystems due to their high abundance and tendency to form dense aggregations, swarms, and schools, which concentrate biomass that attracts visual predators. Species richness, abundance, and carbon biomass of euphausiids and mysids were investigated from a weekly daytime surface zooplankton time series from 2014 to 2017, in relation to 15 environmental variables at Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP, 23°27′ N, 109°25′ W), Mexico. A marine heatwave (MHW; January–August 2014) and El Niño 2015–2016 (May 2015–May 2016) caused anomalously warm temperatures in relation to the 2002–2018 temperature time series. We tested the hypotheses that CPNP is dominated by a tropical euphausiid and mysid species assemblage and that abundance of both taxonomic groups decreased during the MHW 2014 and El Niño 2015–2016. Euphausiids (7.9 ind. m−3) had a higher mean abundance than mysids (3.4 ind. m−3). Eight euphausiid species, mostly of tropical-oceanic affinity, were collected (98 % larvae). Nyctiphanes simplex decreased and Euphausia distinguenda and Stylocheiron carinatum increased in abundance during El Niño 2015–2016. Five mysid species were collected (juveniles and adults). Mysidium rickettsi alone accounted for 99.98 % of total mysid abundance. Although the euphausiids collected were mainly larval stages, due to sampling in shallow coastal waters during the day, they contributed more biomass than juvenile and adult M. rickettsi in the pelagic habitat, though the abundance of this mysid in its epibenthonic habitat was likely underestimated. A canonical correspondence analysis of euphausiid and mysid abundance as a function of 10 environmental variables explained 77.4 % of the total variability, showing greater seasonal (warm vs cold) than interannual changes. The best correlated environmental variables with euphausiid and M. rickettsi abundance were net primary production (−0.419), zooplankton biovolume (0.3177) and the MEI.v2 (−0.278). We concluded that the most evident changes in community structure and abundance were seasonal (e.g. N. simplex dominated during the cold season while E. distinguenda dominated during the warm season) rather than interannual. Moreover, the abundance and biomass of euphausiids decreased during the MHW 2014 and El Niño 2015–2016; paradoxically the highest abundance and biomass of E. distinguenda and the mysid M. rickettsi occurred during El Niño 2015–2016. This implies higher available biomass for benthonic and nektonic predators in this neritic tropical reef ecosystem, contrasting with decreased abundance of euphausiids observed along the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula during this period.

Greater resilience of reef fish assemblages in a no-take reserve compared to multi-use areas of the Gulf of California

Conservation strategies, such as the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), aim to safeguard biodiversity and to promote resilience of ecosystems by increasing their capacity to maintain key functions and processes following disturbance. However, the extent to which ecosystems in MPAs exhibit resilience remains debated. To address this question, we evaluated changes in reef fish species and functional diversity over time in relation to environmental and anthropogenic disturbances at multiple locations in the Gulf of California, Mexico. From 2005 to 2017, we assessed reef fish species richness and abundance in three MPAs: one no-take marine reserve (Cabo Pulmo) and two multi-use marine protected areas (MUMPAs: Espíritu Santo and Loreto). To examine change in functional diversity and composition, we calculated three functional diversity indices – functional richness, functional dispersion and functional originality – using six biological traits (size, mobility, period of activity, gregariousness, water column position, and diet). Species richness, density and functional diversity were maintained over time (resilience) in the no-take marine reserve. In contrast, MUMPAs showed temporal decline in species richness, which translated into decreases in functional richness and increases in functional dispersion. These differences were also observed at the species level: in Cabo Pulmo, only two ‘loser’ species declined in density, while Espíritu Santo and Loreto showed declines of 12 and 17 species, respectively. The two MUMPAs also shared 9 of the total 22 ‘loser’ species, which are generally abundant and common in the Gulf of California. Density declines were attributed to the combined effect of environmental (sea surface temperature and Chlorophyll-a anomalies) and anthropogenic (fishing, tourism and coastal population density) disturbances. Given the regional decline and the ecological importance of dominant species, long-term decreases in their populations can profoundly modify processes and reef ecosystem services in this region. Thus, local management strategies should be implemented to try to reverse the observed recent decline in fish diversity in MUMPAs.

Seasonal tendencies of microplastics around coral reefs in selected Marine Protected National Parks of Gulf of California, Mexico

This study focuses on the presence of MPs in the sediment beds around coral reefs of MPNPs in Baja California Sur, México. Based on seasonal sampling results, comparison of MPs from Cabo Pulmo (avg. 680.25 items/100 g−1 d.w) recorded higher values than Espiritu Santo Island (avg. 321.75 items/100 g−1 d.w) from backshore/foreshore regions. Fibrous MPs are the dominant morphotypes followed by fragments and spheres. SEM/EDS analysis revealed that the MPs are altered texturally in surface and is bioavailable to marine organisms independent of size/shape. FTIR analysis indicate different polymers (in %) in the form of PP (70), PET (65), HDPE (59), LDPE (50), PS (30), PC (18), PU (10) and RYN (10). Most of the MPs are secondary in origin resulting from man-made and tourist's activities controlled by wave transportation and tidal currents. Existence of MPs in sediment beds around the coral reefs signals the ways for future investigations.

Genetic connectivity of the metapopulation of the coral Pocillopora verrucosa (Scleractinia: Pocilloporidae) in multi-use marine protected areas of the Gulf of California, and management implications

Introduction: Estimates of contemporary connectivity of the broadcast spawning coral Pocillopora verrucosa between multi-use marine protected areas (MUMPAs) are required to assess MUMPA effectiveness and their ability to enhance resilience against disturbances. Objective: To determine the genetic structure and connectivity patterns between P. verrucosa demes inside the Gulf of California and evaluate the role and effectiveness of established MUMPAS in their protection and resilience. Methods: We assessed P. verrucosa connectivity along its peninsular range (∼350 km), including five locations and three MUMPAs in the Gulf of California using six microsatellite genetic markers. Results: Population structure was significant (FST = 0.108***) when demes included clonal replicates; however, when these clones were removed from the analysis, the sexual individuals comprised a metapopulation panmixia (FST = 0.0007 NS). To further
 understand connectivity patterns, an assignment test was carried out which identified ten recent between-deme migrants with a mean dispersal distance of 116.6 km (± 80.5 SE). No long-distance dispersal was detected. These results highlight the ecological importance of the Bahía de La Paz region, including Archipiélago de Espíritu Santo MUMPA. This region, located at the center of the species peninsular range, exports larva to downstream sink demes such as the Loreto (northwardly) and Cabo Pulmo (southwardly) MUMPAs. Of importance, inter-MUMPA spacing was larger than the mean larval dispersal by ~56 km, suggesting thar the designation of intermediate ‘no-take’ zones would enhance short-distance connectivity. Conclusion: This study contributes as a baseline for policymakers and authorities to provide robust strategies for coral ecosystem protection and suggest that protection efforts must be increased towards peninsular intermediate reefs to promote metapopulation resilience from natural and anthropogenic factors.

The use of an unoccupied aerial vehicle to survey shark species over sand and rocky-reef habitats in a marine protected area.

Cabo Pulmo National Park was established in 1995 and has since seen a large increase in fish biomass. An unoccupied aerial vehicle (UAV) was used to survey shallow coastal habitat in which lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris), bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) and Pacific nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma unami) were recorded. Sharks were more common in the afternoon, potentially using warmer shallow areas to behaviourally thermoregulate. This study highlights UAV surveying to be a viable tool for species identification, a limitation of previous terrestrial surveys conducted in the area.

An assessment of the roles of tenure and inclusion in conflict mediation at Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico

PurposeThis study aims to unify phenomena in academic and grey literature into a theory of marine spatial disappropriation based on geopolitical relationships. It is argued that conflict over marine space arises as a result of top-down sovereign control of marine resources, and that the recognition of marine tenure and greater inclusivity in marine development* decision-making would lessen conflict between users, such as artisanal fishermen and ecotourism businesses.Design/methodology/approachA preliminary literature review was conducted, followed by a research study at Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) in Baja California Sur, Mexico.FindingsThe results demonstrate that though CPNP's tenure structure is unique and inclusivity is an element of its management, the degree to which it is practiced is not sufficient to eliminate the chance of eventual disappropriation and ensuing conflict.Practical implicationsThe results of this assessment can be used to strengthen the argument in favour of developing stronger requirements for deliberative democratic decision-making in marine delineation, as well as bolder social performance standards in marine development industries.Originality/valueResearch on socio-environmental revolutions are not new, but the authors contest that they are not alone a sufficient condition for achieving reduced conflict long-term. Instead, the originality of this research lies in its exploration of the importance of customary and formal tenure over marine resources, and its suggestion that this on the whole reduces conflict between exclusive and competing interests. One popular alternative, as demonstrated in numerous cases around the globe, can often be the marginalization of small-scale ocean users through the forceful appropriation of ocean resources.

Cephalopod paralarval species richness, abundance and size structure during the 2014–2017 anomalous warm period in the southern Gulf of California

AbstractCephalopod paralarval species richness, abundance and size structure were surveyed wduring an anomalous warm period (2014–2017) in the Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP), Gulf of California, Mexico. Paralarval taxa from six families (Cranchiidae, Enoploteuthidae, Ommastrephidae, Onychoteuthidae, Argonautidae and Octopodidae) were identified. Most taxa were of tropical biogeographic affinity and oceanic habitats. Highest paralarval richness occurred during spring associated with the northward movement of Tropical Surface Water, while the lowest was recorded during autumn with the southward flow of the Gulf of California water mass. Although 89% of the paralarvae were collected at or close to their species hatching size, none of the paralarval taxa showed a consistent seasonal spawning period. A canonical correspondence analysis showed three taxonomic assemblages: Argonauta and Helicocranchia–Onychoteuthis groups correlated with northward currents and high zooplankton biovolumes (ZB) and SD complex–Abraliopsis group with southward currents and intermediate ZB. Our Helicocranchia pfefferi paralarvae are the first recorded for the Gulf of California. At least 11 cephalopod taxa reproduce in CPNP. This area represents a suitable spawning habitat for cephalopods of socio-economic value.

Estimated flows and biomass in a no-take coral reef from the eastern tropical Pacific through network analysis

In the southern Gulf of California, the Cabo Pulmo reef has been the focus of many studies because it is the northern-most coral reef in the eastern Pacific. It is a paragon of a well-managed marine protected area. Under the assumption that fishing mortality is negligible, we want to identify and quantify major energy flows in an ecosystem without human intervention and describe the ecosystem resources and their interactions among species, to provide a tool for ecosystem-based management. We built a trophodynamic model using Ecopath to perform network analysis. Based on fieldwork (October 2017 – May 2018) and literature review, we identified 57 functional groups comprising 51 consumers (including 15 top predators), five primary producers plus detritus, and cluster analysis of trait profiles. The connectance index (0.17) and the system omnivory index (0.22) are low, suggesting that consumers feed on a few discrete trophic levels. Biomass of primary producers (grazing food chain; 186.8 t km−2) provides 9,813 t km−2 y−1, whereas flow from detritus supply 344.9 t km−2 y−1. The transfer efficiency decreases as flows go up the food web, from 12% at TL II to 4% at TL X, and throughput cycled (including detritus) = 118.7 t km−2 y−1. In comparison with other coral reefs, we found that Cabo Pulmo complies with the attributes to resist disturbances, with an estimated total system throughput = 95,789 t km−2 y−1, a net system production = 38,535 t km−2 y−1, a large mean path length = 12.11, ascendency = 123,662 (52%) flowbits and overhead = 116,164 (48%) flowbits. The high quality of the ecosystem services provided by Cabo Pulmo and the scenic beauty appeals to developers. Although the system is resilient, unregulated human activities may impact the reef condition and decrease the residents' quality of life and that of all the people who make a living from the low impact activities currently in effect. The trophic web model presented here may help to improve the response capacity of the coalition of residents, authorities, diving companies, and NGO's to preserve the reef and be a key element to conserve the system by contributing to its best management.

Fine-Tuning Climate Resilience in Marine Socio-Ecological Systems: The Need for Accurate Space-Time Representativeness to Identify Relevant Consequences and Responses

Climate change triggers a wide mosaic of regional and local responses, often different to the large-scale variability in magnitude and direction. Because of the psychological connections (cognitive and emotional) with the frequency, intensity and age of a climatic event, people may have the capacity to recognize key variations at lower scales, especially those from which they perceive risk. Yet, the anticipatory actions and social engagement to respond or adapt to climate change are difficult to achieve, mostly when there exists a long psychological distance to climatic phenomena. Research about climate change communication provides clues about the relevance of place-based discussion to gauge risk perception and improve response protocols, their design and prioritization. It argues that strategies and actions required to face climate risks may widely differ depending on the scale and accuracy of the local representations displayed during discussions of climate impacts. This work examines how local attributes (from climate to social) operate and control place-specific risks and priorities, by comparing coastal communities in two locations, Cabo Pulmo, Mexico and Zanzibar, Tanzania, which are subject to different climate dynamics. This paper discusses the need to identify relevant climate risks/responses at the local level and how psycho-social factors (e.g., psychological distance, collective memory, and social engagement) may operate positively for building climate resilience. We also illustrate a workflow to increase and enhance collaboration between researchers and local people by promoting dialogue, participation and narratives that rigorously consider the local knowledge.

Seasonal aggregations of blacktip sharks Carcharhinus limbatus at a marine protected area in the Gulf of California, assessed by unoccupied aerial vehicle surveys

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs) can provide spatial refuge for species throughout all or part of their life cycles. Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) is a no-take MPA located on the south-east coast of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, where there has been an increase in the abundance and diversity of elasmobranch species since its closure to fishing. An unoccupied aerial vehicle was used to complete weekly aerial surveys over sandy habitat in CPNP to determine the relative abundance of blacktip sharksCarcharhinus limbatusover a 1 yr period in 2019.C. limbatuswere only observed during winter months, and abundance per survey ranged between 7 and 1086 sharks (289 ± 59, mean ± SE), yielding a maximum density of 4827 ind. km-2. A generalized additive model determined that sea surface temperature (SST), time of day, photoperiod and wind speed were significant influencers ofC. limbatusabundance. According to this model, higher abundance is expected when SST is lower than 25°C, during the afternoon, at low wind speeds (<4 knots) and when photoperiod is between 12 and 13 h. The close proximity ofC. limbatusto the shoreline is likely a result of a refuging behaviour, with sharks utilising the shallow sandy habitat to behaviourally thermoregulate and/or to avoid predators.

Seasonal variability of gelatinous zooplankton during an anomalously warm year at Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico

The seasonal variability of gelatinous zooplankton (siphonophores, medusae, and thaliaceans) abundance was investigated at Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) from weekly zooplankton samples collected throughout 2014. The Gulf of California had prolonged warming during 2009-2019, with 2014 as the anomalously warm year preceding El Niño 2015-2016 compared to the 2003-2020 SST time series. Gelatinous zooplankton accounted <1% of the entire zooplankton community abundance at CPNP during 2014, suggesting a low influence of predation pressure upon their zooplanktonic and micronekton preys. Siphonophores (57%), thaliaceans (42%), and medusae (1%) were present throughout the year. The abundance of gelatinous zooplankton had a significant negative association with sea surface temperature and a positive association with sea surface chlorophyll-a concentration and velocity and direction of the wind, increasing their abundance during October after the hurricane season. The gelatinous zooplankton species assemblage at the coastal CPNP was similar but less abundant than the gelatinous zooplankton species assemblage observed in the oceanic region of the southern Gulf of California during summer 2014. Tropical species Diphyes dispar, Abylopsis tetragona, Chelophyes contorta, and Thalia spp. numerically dominated the gelatinous zooplankton community associated with a regional heatwave period recorded during 2014. A high proportion of tropical zooplankton indicates that mesotrophic conditions sustain the current high biomass and diversity of nektonic and benthonic planktophagous fauna inhabiting CPNP. However, prolonged warming events might decrease zooplankton biomass in the southern region of the Gulf of California in the future.

Seasonal controls of the carbon biogeochemistry of a fringing coral reef in the Gulf of California, Mexico

The surface of the ocean has absorbed one-third of the CO2gas that has been released by anthropogenic activities, which has resulted in a reduction in pH and the aragonite saturation state (Ωara) with potential negative impacts in calcifying organisms, such as corals. To evaluate these effects, the natural variability present must first be understood, including that of processes that operate at diurnal, seasonal, and interannual frequencies. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of physical and biogeochemical processes on the seasonal variability of the CO2-system in a fringe coral reef of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP). To achieve this, a SeapHOx sensor was installed to measure temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pHTot at 30-min intervals from November 2013 (early winter) to July 2014 (early summer). The recorded temperature and salinity data fed a mixing model to identify the water masses present in the reef. We show how physical and biogeochemical oceanic processes influence and control the variability of the carbonate system. The presence of water masses with different carbon chemistries responded to two scenarios: (1) seasonal circulation on the order of months and (2) an intermittence between water masses related to mesoscale structures (eddies) on the order of weeks. A low-pH and Ωara condition was detected during summer, which was related to the presence of warm and respired Tropical Surface Water. The broadest changes in Ωara were the result of physical processes (winter ΔΩara = 0.14 and summer ΔΩara = 0.34 units) and corresponded to the transition between water masses with different carbon-biogeochemistry signals. Our results suggest that the Cabo Pulmo coral community develops in an environment with a wide range of pH and Ωara conditions and that seasonal changes are controlled by open ocean carbon biogeochemistry.

Copepod species assemblage and carbon biomass during two anomalous warm periods of distinct origin during 2014–2015 in the southern Gulf of California

Copepod species assemblage and biomass were studied during a weekly time series done during an anomalously warm and low sea surface Chlorophyll-a concentration period 2014–2015, compared with 2002–2018, at Cabo Pulmo National Park, Gulf of California, Mexico. Forty-nine copepod species accounted for 64% of the total zooplankton abundance. Three small copepods (Oncaea venusta 12.6%, Paracalanus parvus 11.5%, Clausocalanus jobei 8.6%) out of 45 species numerically dominated during 2014. The large copepods Subeucalanus subtenuis and Subeucalanus subcrassus out of 38 species recorded during 2015 increased in abundance accounting for 69% of copepod Carbon biomass. A Canonical Correspondence Analysis demonstrated SST drove copepod species assemblages. Copepod abundance was significantly higher during the cold (Nov–May) that during the warm (Jun–Oct) season and lower during Jan–Aug 2014 regional heatwave than during the Equatorial El Niño (Nov 2014–Dec 2015). Acartia tonsa was the only significant species indicator during the 2014 regional heatwave and Clausocalanus furcatus, Copilia mirabilis, and Cosmocalanus darwinii were significant species indicators of El Niño 2015. Copepod species assemblage had 87% tropical species during the Jan–Aug 2014 due to the regional heatwave that started the tropicalization of copepod community increasing to 95% of tropical species during El Niño 2015.

Beyond “Success”: Community, Governance, and the Future of Cabo Pulmo National Park

This paper uses Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) as a case study to examine the successes and challenges of Marine Protected Area (MPA) design, conception, and long-term governance. Drawing from literature in environmental anthropology, political ecology, and conservation, the author argues for a renewed examination of the ‘success’ of CPNP that pays greater attention to the relationship between socio-political factors (e.g. access, ownership, participation, and rights) and protected area governance. Ultimately, the paper calls for a reconsideration of Marine Protected Area design and implementation that explicitly acknowledges the politics of conservation and protected area management, and seeks to explicitly create and support more effective platforms for participation and conflict resolution.

Reproductive behaviour and concurrent sound production of Gulf grouper Mycteroperca jordani (Epinephelidae) at a spawning aggregation site.

The reproductive and acoustic behaviours of Gulf grouper Mycteroperca jordani were studied at a spawning aggregation site in the southern Gulf of California, México. In May 2015-2017, divers located and surveyed a spawning aggregation site within Cabo Pulmo National Park. Adult M. jordani conformed to a lek mating system in which large males formed territories over sand adjacent to a rocky reef that were spatially segregated from smaller females outside of courtship and spawning periods. Females moved into male territories during evening hours to spawn. Male courtship behaviours targeted a single female, included head shakes and burst rises and preceded pair spawning prior to sunset. Males and females displayed three shared colour phases, but four phases were sex-specific. During evening hours, courtship and spawning, both sexes exhibited sexual dichromatism concurrent with reproductive behaviours. The pair-spawning mating system and observations of bimodal size distributions by sex support previous claims of protogyny in the species. Males produced sounds during territorial patrols, courtship and spawning rushes, which corroborated the importance of acoustic communication within the behavioural repertoire associated with spawning. Long-term acoustic monitoring revealed increases in total sounds detected day-1 from March through June with diel increases (e.g., evenings) that may be indicative of the spawning season. Observations of spawning on 12 consecutive evenings in May 2017 coupled with extended periods of sound production suggest that spawning does not follow a lunar rhythm. This first description of the mating system and sounds of the endangered M. jordani facilitates future development of seasonal and areal protections to restore and manage the species.