Caatinga Of Northeastern Brazil Research Articles

Chemical profile and evaluation of the pharmacological activity of the dry extract and fraction of ethyl acetate obtained from the leaves of Mimosa caesalpiniifolia

Ethnopharmacological relevanceMimosa caesalpiniifolia (Sansão-do-Campo) is a native species of the caatinga in northeastern Brazil that has been studied for its potential anti-inflammatory and antidepressant activity. It is popularly consumed as a medicinal plant and its pharmacological benefits are evidenced in the literature. Aim of the studyThe present work was carried out to promote the chemical profile and evaluate the pharmacological activity of the dry extract and the ethyl acetate fraction obtained from the dry leaves of Mimosa caesalpiniifolia. Materials and methodsThe leaves were collected in the municipality of Alfenas-MG and subjected to drying, followed by division in a knife mill. The preparation of the dry extract was carried out by the extraction method using simple percolation and the fraction was obtained by liquid-liquid partition. Part of the extractive solution was concentrated in a rotary evaporator followed by a drying process using the spray technique with the addition of colloidal silicon dioxide. The dry extract (33.33%) showed a higher yield in mass when compared to the yield of the ethyl acetate fraction (19.67%). The in vivo pharmacological evaluation was conducted with a total of 82 male Wistar rats that underwent cecal ligation and perforation surgery to induce the inflammatory process. One week after surgery, these animals were treated for 7 days with the dry extract and the ethyl acetate fraction and submitted to behavioral tests (open field and forced swimming). ResultsThe chemical results were obtained through analysis by HPLC-PDA coupled to a mass spectrometer, enabling the verification of the presence of phenolic acids, flavonoids, aglycones, and glycosides, in addition to tannins. This corroborates with data present in the literature for the genus Mimosa sp. Some compounds had their structure determined, where they were identified as catechin (m/z 288.97), cassiaocidentalin A (m/z 560.75), and procyanidin B2 [(epi)catechin–(epi)catechin; m/z 576.83)]. It was found that the animals that were submitted to the treatment did not present statistically significant results, demonstrating that the pharmacological action evaluated in the test was not highlighted in this type of experiment. The groups that underwent treatment had an aggravated locomotor activity. ConclusionsThe results found with the chemical study contributed to the knowledge of the plant species studied. On the other hand, further studies are needed to provide a better understanding of the pharmacological evaluation of Mimosa caesalpiniifolia.

03.Diet composition and tropic niche overlap of Ameivula ocellifera Spix 1825 (Squamata: Teiidae) and Tropidurus cocorobensis Rodrigues 1987 (Squamata: Tropiduridae), sympatric species with different foraging modes, in Caatinga

Lizard diets can be influenced by several factors, such as age, physiological aspects, food availability, behaviour and foraging mode. The latter can be an important predictor of the type of prey consumed. This study analysed Ameivula ocellifera and Tropidurus cocorobensis diets, both of which are psammophiles and coexist in an area of Caatinga in north-eastern Brazil, but use different foraging modes. Lizard stomachs were examined, and prey categories were quantified by frequency of occurrence, number, volume and relative importance index. We used PERMANOVA and SIMPER analyses to understand the dissimilarities among diets. Additionally, we estimated the degree of trophic niche overlap between species using the Pianka index. The most frequently consumed food item by A. ocellifera was Isoptera and Formicidae (Hymenoptera) for T. cocorobensis. The trophic niche overlap between the species was approximately 0.24 and, although there were many consumed prey categories in common, the proportion at which these prey categories were consumed was quite divergent. For example, the consumption of plant material, which was present in the diet of both species, was much more important for T. cocorobensis compared to the active forager A. ocellifera. Our results indicate that despite sharing the same space and consuming the same prey types, these species have significant differences in their diets. Furthermore, these divergences can be explained by several factors in the environment and even by the evolutionary history of each species, which are included in different families and are not evolutionarily close to each other. Keywords: diet; niche overlap; foraging mode; plant consumption; competition

Isolation by distance and past climate resistance shaped the distribution of genealogical lineages of a neotropical lizard

Organisms adapted to open environments in South America have recently been used to understand the origins of the high Neotropical biodiversity. In the Caatinga, the largest continuous block of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in South America, phylogeographic studies have uncovered the role of historical climate changes and rivers (i.e., the São Francisco River, the largest perennial river in Caatinga), in promoting genetic differentiation and speciation of lizards and amphibians. We used mitochondrial data, demographic analyses, paleodistribution models, and landscape genetic methods to test the effects of spatial distances, historical climate fluctuations, and landscape heterogeneity on the genetic variation of the generalist lizard Tropidurus hispidus in the semi-arid Caatinga in northeastern Brazil. Four haplogroups with moderate geographical structure diverged in the Pleistocene, and exhibited high genetic diversity. Ecological niche models revealed large suitable climatic areas for T. hispidus in the past 790 thousand years, connecting the Caatinga and other regions via a narrow corridor. Part of the genetic differentiation in T. hispidus resulted from spatial distances among populations and isolation by resistance through climatic unsuitability areas in the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which probably reduced population connectivity and gene flow. Our findings highlight the role of the historical factors of the Caatinga, through LGM climate, and the generalist condition of species in shaping the genealogical histories of populations. Although the results are based on a single-locus approach, our study is a first step to shed light on the main drivers of the evolutionary history of T. hispidus, in a highly diverse and still poorly studied region.

Ethnoornithology and Bird Conservation in Afro-descendant Communities in the Brazilian Caatinga

This paper investigates relationships between birds and the inhabitants of Afro-descendant communities in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil, paying particular attention to conservation. Near the Refúgio de Vida Silvestre da Serra do Giz wildlife reserve, we interviewed 55 residents using semi-structured forms combined with free interviews and informal conversations. Residents reported 121 species in 43 families and 21 orders. They recounted what they knew about nesting, reproductive and social behaviors, diet, and bird conservation. The lack of reporting on several species of birds known from the Serra do Giz was probably because those birds are absent due to hunting and habitat destruction. This study demonstrates the importance of conducting ethnobiological studies for bird conservation and to record local traditional knowledge.

First records of Brazilian three-banded armadillo (Tolypeutes tricinctus, Mammalia, Cingulata, Chlamyphoridae) predation by jaguar (Panthera onca, Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

The jaguar Panthera onca and the Brazilian three-banded armadillo Tolypeutes tricinctus are two threatened mammals that coexist in the Caatinga dry forests and the Cerrado savannas of Brazil. Yet, to the best of our knowledge, interactions between these species have not been reported in the literature. Here, we present the first records of P. onca predation on T. tricinctus from two different areas in the Caatinga in northeastern Brazil. We showed that P. onca can pierce the hard carapace of T. tricinctus, which may be possible due to its distinctly strong bite and associated predation behavior. We argue that P. onca may be the most adapted non-human predator to feed on T. tricinctus, and that the smaller body sizes of P. onca individuals in the Caatinga may increase their likelihood to feed on smaller prey, including T. tricinctus. Thus, the originality of our records is probably more related to insufficient research in the areas where these species coexist than to the rarity of this interaction.

Interaction between bark extract of Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul with antibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul, a plant often found in areas of the Caatinga in northeastern Brazil, is widely used in unconventional medicine for the treatment of infections and inflammations. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the antibacterial activity of A. colubrina bark extracts against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) clinical isolates, to investigate if intact and regenerated bark extracts have the same effect against MRSA and to determine the interaction between these extracts and antibiotics. The antibacterial activity was performed by the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the interaction assay was performed by the checkerboard method. A. colubrina extracts showed bacteriostatic activity (MIC = 8-32 mg/L) against MRSA clinical strains and no difference was found in antibacterial activity between intact and regenerated barks, suggesting that even after regeneration, the barks of this species have the same antibacterial activity. Moreover, the in vitro interaction of A. colubrina extracts with ciprofloxacin or erythromycin was additive (FICI = 0.52). Thus, the bark extracts of Anadenanthera colubrina exhibit antibacterial activity and can be used alone or in combination with antibiotics against MRSA clinical isolates.

Phylogenetic Position of Trichomycterus payaya and Examination of Osteological Characters Diagnosing the Neotropical Catfish Genus Ituglanis (Siluriformes: Trichomycteridae).

The Trichomycterinae is among the most diverse catfish groups in the world, with interesting ecological specializations; however, the taxonomy of Trichomycterinae is still problematic, mainly due to unclear limits and diagnoses of the eight included genera. Herein we infer the phylogenetic position and generic placement of Trichomycterus payaya, a recently described species from north-eastern Brazil, with unique morphological features among congeners. A multigene analysis including fragments of two nuclear and two mitochondrial genes (total of 2974 bp) for 53 trichomycterine taxa and three outgroups clearly supports inclusion of T. payaya in Ituglanis, a trichomycterine genus containing 29 valid species, which is corroborated by osteological characters. An examination of osteological characters used to diagnose Ituglanis in its original description indicates that a rudimentary or absent posterior cranial fontanel is synapomorphic for Ituglanis, but this is reversed in I. payaya; an anteriorly directed antero-lateral extremity of the sphenotic-prootic-pterosphenoid complex and a narrow and long lateral process of the parurohyal are synapomorphic for Ituglanis, but homoplastically occurring in other trichomycterids; and the presence of a deep medial concavity on the autopalatine is ambiguous to diagnose Ituglanis by occurring in other closely related trichomycterine taxa. Ituglanis is also distinguishable from other trichomycterines by a unique shape of the metapterygoid and by a reduced number of ribs. The analysis supports a clade, comprising I. payaya and I. paraguassuensis, that is endemic to the Chapada Diamantina, in the semiarid Caatinga of north-eastern Brazil, reinforcing the importance of this region for trichomycterid diversification. By integrating molecular analysis and comparative morphology, the present study provides a more solid basis for delimiting Ituglanis, creating a better taxonomical resolution of the Trichomycterinae, although much more research is necessary to reach a consistent generic classification for the entire subfamily.

Microsatellite variation revealed panmictic pattern for Triatoma brasiliensis (Triatominae: Reduviidae) in rural northeastern Brazil: the control measures implications

BackgroundTriatoma brasiliensis Neiva, 1911 is the main vector of Trypanosoma cruzi in the caatinga of Northeastern Brazil. Despite of its epidemiological relevance, there are few studies on its genetic variability. Using microsatellite markers, we characterized the variability and dynamics of infestation and reinfestation of T. brasiliensis after residual insecticide spraying in five surveys conducted in a well-defined rural area located in the municipality of Tauá, Ceará, between 2009 and 2015. We evaluated: (1) general variability among local of captures; (2) variability along the time analysis (2009, 2010 and 2015); (3) and reinfestation process.ResultsOn the analysis (1) global and pairwise FST values suggested absence of clusters among the area. AMOVA indicated that total variation is mainly represented by individual differences. Absence of clustering indicates a panmitic unit, with free gene flow. For (2), Pairwise FST indicated alterations in the genetic profile of the triatomines along the time. (3) Analysis of the reinfestation process showed that the domiciliary units investigated had different sources of infestation despite of its proximity.ConclusionsObserved homogeneity can be explained by the great dispersal capacity of T. brasiliensis, overlapping the different environments. Persistent house infestation in Tauá may be attributed to the occurrence of postspraying residual foci and the invasion of triatomines from their natural habitats.

Living among thorns: herpetofaunal community (Anura and Squamata) associated to the rupicolous bromeliad Encholirium spectabile (Pitcairnioideae) in the Brazilian semi-arid Caatinga

Bromeliads are important habitats for reptiles and amphibians, and are constantly used as shelter, refuge, foraging or thermoregulation sites due to their foliar architecture, which allows for constant maintenance of humidity and temperature. This study aimed to identify the herpetofauna inhabiting the non-phytotelmata rupicolous bromeliad Encholirium spectabile Mart. ex Schult. & Schult.f. and to analyze the microhabitat usage of these bromeliads by different species in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil. From January 2011 to August 2012, we collected data by active search throughout three paralel transects in a rock outcrop in the municipality of Santa Maria, state of Rio Grande do Norte. We recorded four species of anuran amphibians, six lizards, and seven snakes in the bromeliads. The average air temperature was lower and air humidity higher inside than outside the bromeliads, and bromeliads at the rock outcrop borders had lower temperatures and higher humidity than those at the center. We found a significant difference in the distribution of individuals throughout the rock outcrop, with most specimens found at the borders. We also found significant differences regarding the use of each microhabitat by the taxonomic groups, with lizards and snakes using green leaves and dry leaves evenly, along with fewer records in inflorescence stems, and anurans mainly using green leaves, with few records on dry leaves, and no records in the inflorescence stems. This study highlights rupicolous bromeliads as key elements in the conservation and maintenance of amphibians and reptiles in the rock outcrops of Brazilian semi-arid Caatinga.

A New Worm Lizard Species (Squamata: Amphisbaenidae: Amphisbaena) with Non-autotomic Tail, from Northeastern Brazil

We describe a new species of Amphisbaena from the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil. The new taxon is identified mainly by having 216–239 body annuli, 13–17 caudal annuli without autotomic site, 4–8 (usually six) precloacal pores without a median hiatus, 18–24 dorsal and 18–24 ventral segments at a midbody annulus, 4 supralabials, 3 infralabials, and postmalar row present. The continued discovery of new amphisbaenians from Caatinga highlights the insufficient current knowledge regarding the diversity of this group in this semiarid region.

Ecological relationships of Haemagogus spegazzinii (Diptera: Culicidae) in a semiarid area of Brazil.

INTRODUCTION: Haemagogus are mosquitoes with diurnal habits that live preferentially in forest areas. In Brazil, they are considered the primary vectors of wild yellow fever. METHODS: The ecological relationships between Haemagogus spegazzinii, the environment, and some of its activities in the semiarid region of Rio Grande do Norte were analyzed by collecting eggs with ovitraps, actively searching in tree holes, capturing adults in Shannon traps, and conducting an investigation for viral infections. RESULTS: A total of 2420 eggs, 271 immature specimens (larvae and pupae), and 206 adults were collected. Egg collection depended on rainfall and relative humidity, with oviposition occurring between January and May. Larvae were found in five plant species, including Tabebuia aurea (craibeira), with 160 larvae collected. We observed shared breeding sites between Hg. spegazzinii and the following species: Aedes albopictus, Aedes terrens, Culex spp., and Toxorhynchites theobaldi. Adults exhibited greater activity between 5 pm and 6 pm, when 191 (92.7%) specimens were captured, while only 1 (0.5%) was collected between 7 pm and 8 pm. The relationship between Hg. spegazzinii and rainfall was significant, with positive correlations with accumulated rainfall 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 days before mosquito collection. We found that the species was infected with the DENV-2 virus. CONCLUSIONS: This work contributes new information on the bioecology of Hg. spegazzinii, with data on the main reproduction periods, oviposition, breeding sites, activity times, and the relationship between the species and meteorological variables in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil.

Is Myotis lavali (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) endemic to the South American dry diagonal?

AbstractMyotis lavali was described from the M. nigricans complex based on museum specimens from the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil. Current records of the species from about 10 localities suggest that M. lavali seems to occur throughout the South American dry corridor, with peripheral records in the Atlantic Forest. Based on new distribution records, we assess if M. lavali is endemic to the South American dry diagonal corridor through species distribution modeling using an ensemble approach. We obtained 35 occurrences for the species and built a consensus scenario based on 12 algorithms to model its distribution. Even using different thresholds to assign presence and absence of M. lavali, 95–99% of its predicted distribution is within the dry corridor, with few areas in the boundary of the Atlantic Forest, especially in deciduous forests. Therefore, our results support that M. lavali is indeed very likely restricted to the dry diagonal and, although it occupies forested areas, the core of its distribution lies in the Caatinga and in the Cerrado regions of Brazil.

Potential distribution of and priority conservation areas for the Endangered Caatinga howler monkeyAlouatta ululatain north-eastern Brazil

AbstractThe Caatinga of north-eastern Brazil is the largest and most diverse seasonally dry tropical forest in the Americas and is home to numerous endemic species. However, only 1.2% of the area is under full protection, and given the ongoing decline of this biome there is an urgent need to expand the protected area network. The Endangered Caatinga howler monkeyAlouatta ululatais almost endemic to the Caatinga, and is a potential umbrella species for the protection of its biodiversity. Using all available distribution data and our own surveys we appliedMaxentandZonationspatial modelling to identify the range ofA. ululata, and priority conservation areas for the species, maximizing habitat quality and connectivity, and minimizing conservation constraints. The top 10% priority areas cover 34,400 km2and mostly coincide with good remnants of Caatinga. Only priority areas in the northern part of the species’ range are protected, so it is essential to create new protected areas in the centre and south of the range.Maxentmodelling indicates that the species depends on good tree cover, but even inside protected areas we observed recent deforestation, illustrating the urgency to improve management.Maxentalso indicated that aridity limits the species' range, and therefore the ongoing aridification of the Caatinga is a threat to its future. The protection ofA. ululatarequires establishing new protected areas in priority locations and improving management of existing protected areas. Preservation of priority areas for the Caatinga howler monkey also represents an opportunity for the conservation of other important biodiversity in the region.

Balancing contest competition, scramble competition, and social tolerance at feeding sites in wild common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus).

Models of primate sociality focus on the costs and benefits of group living and how factors such as rank, feeding competition, alliance formation, and cooperative behavior shape within-group social relationships. We conducted a series of controlled field experiments designed to investigate how resource distribution (one or three of four reward platforms) and amount of food on a reward platform affected foraging strategies and individual feeding success in four groups of wild common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) living in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil. At our field site, common marmoset groups are characterized by a single breeding female who can produce twin litters twice per year, strong social cohesion, and cooperative infant care provided principally by several adult male helpers. We found that except for the dominant breeding female, rank (based on aggression) was not a strong predictor of feeding success. Although the breeding female in each group occupied the highest rank position and obtained the greatest daily feeding success, all other group members, including adults and juveniles experienced relatively equal feeding success across most experimental conditions. This was accomplished using a balance of behavioral strategies related to contest competition, scramble competition (associated with a finder's advantage), and social tolerance (sharing the same feeding platform). Based on these results, the social structure of common marmosets is best described as "single female dominance," with the breeding female maximizing food intake needed to offset the energetic costs associated with reproductive twinning and the ability to produce two litters per year. Cooperative infant caregiving, in which the number of helpers is positively correlated with offspring survivorship, requires a set of behavioral strategies that serve to reduce contest competition and promote prosocial behaviors at feeding sites.

Human activities influence the occupancy probability of mammalian carnivores in the Brazilian Caatinga

AbstractThe Caatinga is a semi‐arid domain, characterized by reduced humidity and high rates of anthropogenic impact. In addition to the low availability of water, carnivorous mammals are still exposed to a number of threats related to landscape modifications. We used data from camera traps and occupancy models to investigate the habitat use by carnivores in an area of Caatinga in northeastern Brazil. We found a negative correlation between the distance from wind farms and the occupancy probability of the jaguar, and a positive correlation with the occupancy probability of the jaguarundi. Puma and jaguarundi occupied primarily sites near watercourses, whereas the occupancy of the crab‐eating fox was correlated positively with the presence of poachers. The ocelot was detected more frequently at sites distant from human settlements, whereas the jaguar was detected more often in areas far from wind farms. We found a negative correlation between the distance of water and the detection of the ocelot. The detection of the crab‐eating fox was influenced positively by the detection of cattle. In addition to the negative influence of some anthropic activities, our results indicate that water is a very important resource for species, and the few permanent sources of this resource available in the area must be preserved. The replication of our research in other systems, worldwide, that are experiencing similar pressures, should permit a systematic evaluation of the management and conservation strategies needed to rebuild or maintain populations, restore ecosystems, and support conservation policies in human‐altered landscapes.Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.

Relative growth and onset of morphological sexual maturity of the freshwater crab Sylviocarcinus pictus in a river of the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to investigate the relative growth and onset of morphological sexual maturity of the freshwater crab Sylviocarcinus pictus. Specimens were collected every month from October 2013 to September 2014, at night, on a stretch of the river Guaribas, Piauí, Brazil. Crabs were sexed and their carapace width (CW, independent variable), carapace length (CL), cheliped propodus length (PL) and height (PH), gonopod length (GL), and abdomen width (AW) (dependent variables) were measured. These measurements were related to characterise relative growth and possible sex differences. On average males were larger than females (p = 0.0001). Size at the onset of morphological sexual maturity was defined by relating CL vs. PL for males (30.82 mm) and CL vs. AW for females (28.63 mm). These are considered secondary sexual characters and reflect initial size at morphological sexual maturity with greater precision. The differential cheliped growth of males may be related to courting and disputes with other males, while the allometric growth of the abdomen of females indicates increased probability of reproductive success.

Cryptic species diversity in the Hypsolebiasmagnificus complex, a clade of endangered seasonal killifishes from the São Francisco River basin, Brazilian Caatinga (Cyprinodontiformes, Aplocheilidae).

A great diversity of animal species adapted to life in the semi-arid Caatinga of northeastern Brazil, including seasonal killifishes, has been reported in the last three decades. More recently, field and molecular data have shown a high occurrence of cryptic species. The killifish group herein analysed, the Hypsolebiasmagnificus species complex, is endemic to the middle and southern portion of the Caatinga, occupying about 120 km along the floodplains of the middle São Francisco River and some adjacent tributaries. Species of this complex are rare and presently considered threatened with extinction, being uniquely found in pools protected by trees and bushes. Single-locus delimitation methods were used to test species limits of populations displaying different colour patterns along the whole distribution of the complex. All analyses consistently supported the three nominal species and two new, herein described: H.gardneri Costa, sp. n., from the floodplains of the middle São Francisco River and H.hamadryades Costa, sp. n., from the Gorotuba River floodplains. The phylogenetic analysis highly supports H.hamadryades as sister to a clade comprising H.gardneri and H.harmonicus. Our field observations suggest that H.hamadryades is a miniature species. This study indicates that the H.magnificus complex comprises cryptic species apparently endemic to small areas and extremely vulnerable to environmental changes, deserving high concern.

Bioacoustics as an Important Complementary Tool in Bat Inventories in the Caatinga Drylands of Brazil

The Caatinga of northeastern Brazil is considered one of the most species-rich dry forests in the World. The area may harbor nearly 100 species of bats and correctly accessing such richness is a scientific challenge. Bat inventories have been usually based solely on mist netting, which is biased in drylands, where nearly half of the species are open-space insectivores flying high above nets, or species able to better detect and avoid nets. Here, we used mist netting and acoustic inventories in three protected areas in the Caatinga, so species richness could be compared based on both techniques. After an effort of 1,010 net.hours and 1,941 minutes of recordings, we recorded 29 species with nets, 27 on recordings, and five with both techniques. Acoustic sampling resulted in more species in 44% of nights sampled, and two nights had species recorded solely based on their echolocation calls. Species recording differed between techniques, and the driest the site, the lowest the captures with nets, while records based on echolocation remained constant. Based on species estimators, netting achieved 51% of the expected richness, acoustics achieved 87%, and both techniques achieved 70%. Using acoustic sampling we recorded ca. of 42% of the insectivorous species expected for the entire Caatinga and 20% solely on netting. Moreover, in our study bioacoustics indicated that some species were more abundant and widespread than expected. Therefore, studies using solely netting or bioacoustics will produce different results and, in Neotropical dry forests like Caatinga, for a more complete scenario on the local bat species richness a combination of both techniques is essential.

On the “Cangaço” route: a new species of Hymenaea (Leguminosae) from the Brazilian Caatinga

A new species of Hymenaea from the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil is described and illustrated. H. cangaceira is morphologically similar to H. martiana and H. longifolia, and its geographical distribution overlaps those of both species; however, it differs in the combination of glabrous, ovate to broadly-elliptic leaflets, a glabrous ovary, and relatively short, cylindrical fruit. The new species is well represented in the herbaria of northeastern Brazil. An identification key is provided to distinguish it from other species of Hymenaea that occur in the Caatinga region.

Population genetic structure of the rock outcrop species Encholirium spectabile (Bromeliaceae): The role of pollination vs. seed dispersal and evolutionary implications.

Inselbergs are terrestrial, island-like rock outcrop environments that present a highly adapted flora. The epilithic bromeliad Encholirium spectabile is a dominant species on inselbergs in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil. We conducted a population genetic analysis to test whether the substantial phenotypic diversity of E. spectabile could be explained by limited gene flow among populations and to assess the relative impact of pollen vs. seed dispersal on the genetic structure of the species. Nuclear and chloroplast microsatellite markers were used to genotype E. spectabile individuals from 20 rock outcrop locations, representing four geographic regions: northern Espinhaço Range, Borborema Plateau, southwestern Caatinga and southeastern Caatinga. F-statistics, structure, and other tools were applied to evaluate the genetic makeup of populations. Considerable levels of genetic diversity were revealed. Genetic structuring among populations was stronger on the plastid as compared with the nuclear level, indicating higher gene flow via bat pollination as compared with seed dispersal by wind. structure and AMOVA analyses of the nuclear data suggested a high genetic differentiation between two groups, one containing all populations from the southeastern Caatinga and the other one comprising all remaining samples. The strong genetic differentiation between southeastern Caatinga and the remaining regions may indicate the occurrence of a cryptic species in E. spectabile. The unique genetic composition of each inselberg population suggests in situ conservation as the most appropriate protection measure for this plant lineage.