Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Research Articles

Preventing zoonotic and zooanthroponotic disease transmission at wild great ape sites: Recommendations from qualitative research at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.

Employees at wild great ape sites are at high risk of transmitting infectious diseases to endangered great apes. Because of the significant amount of time employees spend near great apes, they are a priority population for the prevention and treatment of zoonotic and zooanthroponotic spillover and need adequate preventive and curative healthcare. Qualitative, semi-structured interviews with 46 staff (rangers and porters) at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda (BINP) and key informants from five other wild great ape sites around the world were performed. The objectives of the study were to 1) evaluate health-seeking behavior and health resources used by staff in contact with great apes at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park; 2) evaluate existing occupational health programs for employees working with great apes in other parts of the world; and 3) make recommendations for improvement of occupational health at BINP. Results show that BINP employees do not frequently access preventive healthcare measures, nor do they have easy access to diagnostic testing for infectious diseases of spillover concern. Recommendations include assigning a dedicated healthcare provider for great ape site staff, providing free annual physical exams, and stocking rapid malaria tests and deworming medication in first aid kits at each site.

The Role of Folklore in Conservation of Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

This study set out to examine the role of folklore in conservation of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. Attention was put on exploring the types of folklore that are available for conservation of mountain gorillas among the communities; and the application of folklore in conservation of mountain gorillas in the Southern Sector of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. The study involved in seeking an understanding of the people’s interpretations, perceptions, opinions, and ideas concerning the conservation of mountain gorillas. A purely qualitative case study research design was employed to achieve the study objectives. Purposive sampling techniques were used to select respondents for the study. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions with the respondents were employed to collect the required data. The results confirmed an array of folklores including legends, myths, folkloric names, folk dances and songs, harvesting beliefs, taboos, and totems that were used in the conservation of the mountain gorillas. Folklores also inculcated conservation attitudes and behaviors that concerned some other plants and animals into the members of the local community. The research findings confirmed that folklores can be integrated into community-based conservation programs, conservation policies, resource access programmes, eco-tourism, school curriculum and education and awareness programmes for an effective conservation of important biodiversity including mountain gorillas.
 Hence, documentation of folklore, integration of folklore in the National Education Curriculum, involvement of folklore users in the conservation policy making processes, and development of the Uganda national folklore policy are very essential for the continued conservation of the mountain gorillas.

Comparative life history patterns of female gorillas.

Several theories have been proposed to explain the impact of ecological conditions on differences in life history variables within and between species. Here we compare female life history parameters of one western lowland gorilla population (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and two mountain gorilla populations (Gorilla beringei beringei). We compared the age of natal dispersal, age of first birth, interbirth interval, and birth rates using long-term demographic datasets from Mbeli Bai (western gorillas), Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and the Virunga Massif (mountain gorillas). The Mbeli western gorillas had the latest age at first birth, longest interbirth interval, and slowest surviving birth rate compared to the Virunga mountain gorillas. Bwindi mountain gorillas were intermediate in their life history patterns. These patterns are consistent with differences in feeding ecology across sites. However, it is not possible to determine the evolutionary mechanisms responsible for these differences, whether a consequence of genetic adaptation to fluctuating food supplies ("ecological risk aversion hypothesis") or phenotypic plasticity in response to the abundance of food ("energy balance hypothesis"). Our results do not seem consistent with the extrinsic mortality risks at each site, but current conditions for mountain gorillas are unlikely to match their evolutionary history. Not all traits fell along the expected fast-slow continuum, which illustrates that they can vary independently from each other ("modularity model"). Thus, the life history traits of each gorilla population may reflect a complex interplay of multiple ecological influences that are operating through both genetic adaptations and phenotypic plasticity.

Lightning scars on tropical trees-Evidence and opportunities.

Lightning strikes are a significant cause of tree mortality and damage in some regions of the tropics. Formation of lightning scars on tropical trees, however, is considered rare and therefore of little relevance in identifying trees struck by lightning. Here, we suggest, based on observations made in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), that lightning scars can be frequent and may be a useful diagnostic feature to aid in identifying trees struck by lightning.

Seasonality in the equatorial tropics: Flower, fruit, and leaf phenology of montane trees in the highlands of Southwest Uganda

AbstractPhenology influences many forest functions and can inform forest conservation and management, yet representative phenological data for most common tropical forest tree species remain sparse or absent. Between June 2011 and December 2013, we investigated flowering, fruiting, and leafing patterns in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, a montane forest located near the equator in Uganda, drawing on 16,410 observations of 530 trees of 54 species located between 2066 and 2527 m in elevation. The park's climate is equatorial with two wet and dry seasons each year. Flowering and fruiting were strongly seasonal while patterns in leafing were less pronounced. Flower occurrence peaked at the beginning of the short dry season followed by a pronounced trough during the beginning and the middle of the short wet season. Fruit occurrence had a pronounced peak during high rainfall months in March through April with most fruits ripening during drier months in May through July. Fruit scarcity was observed for a 4‐month period spanning September to December and most flushing of leaves noted at the end of the wet season in November and December. Our binomial generalized linear mixed models indicated that flowering and fruiting were negatively associated with temperature and that leafing activity was positively associated with rainfall and temperature. These findings are consistent with the insolation‐ and water‐limitation hypotheses suggesting that the seasonally varying availability of resources such as light, water, and nutrients determines these phenological patterns. Ideally, prolonged, multi‐year community‐level studies would be supported so as to better characterize the influence of climate and of climate variability.

The impact of tourist visits on mountain gorilla behavior in Uganda

ABSTRACT Tourism can play a significant role in the conservation of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) by financing the protection of their habitat, but few systematic studies have focused on the impacts of tourist presence on gorilla behavior. We assessed stress-coping mechanisms (Prosocial behaviors), behavioral indicators of stress (Self-scratching), and Human-directed behavior, in the presence and absence of tourist groups visiting one group of mountain gorillas living in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Generalized linear mixed models were used to analyse differences in gorilla behavior as a function of (a) presence vs. absence of tourists and (b) proximity to tourists (3 m). Contrary to guidelines, tourists spent 60% of their viewing time within 3 m of the gorillas, and 96% of the tourist groups had more than 8 people. During tourist visits, gorillas increased time spent in Prosocial behavior and in rates of Self-scratching and Human-directed behavior. When tourists approached gorillas within 3 m, Prosocial and Human-directed behavior increased while Feeding decreased, but only adult males increased Self-scratching rates. We conclude that tourists are influencing gorilla behavior. We recommend following and enforcing the IUCN guidelines by keeping a minimum 7 m distance when viewing gorillas.

Tourist expectations and satisfaction in mountain gorilla tourism in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

ABSTRACT Sustainable tourism plays a pivotal role in the conservation of endangered mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei); however, few studies have investigated tourist expectations and satisfaction from a tourism management perspective. We conducted a questionnaire survey (N = 303) from December 2019 to January 2020 in Bwindi, Uganda, and measured tourists’ expectations and satisfaction of 21 specific aspects on 5-point Likert scale. We also collected socio-demographic data and measured the overall satisfaction, recommendations to their friends and/or relatives, and the willingness to revisit on 10-point Likert scale. Tourists had high expectations, especially regarding observation experience, conservation, and education, while they had high satisfaction levels for most items, but with large variances in several aspects such as the costs and easiness of tracking. Mean satisfaction levels outweighed mean expectations in most items except for the sense of crowdedness and observation manner. The overall satisfaction and recommendation levels were very high but the willingness to revisit varied among tourists (negatively correlated with age), suggesting gorilla tourism is once in a lifetime experience for many tourists. The results indicated that mountain gorilla tourism performed well, but also highlighted implications for maintaining a sustainable tourism-conservation balance.

Sex ratios, damage and distribution of Myrianthus holstii Engl.: a dioecious afromontane forest tree

Abstract Male and female dioecious tropical trees are subjected to distinct demands that may influence their ecology. An example is Myrianthus holstii Engl. that produces persistent fruit eaten by elephants and other large mammals that frequently damage the trees. Myrianthus holstii populations were assessed with 24 2-km transects, spanning an elevation range of 1435–2495 m in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. Of 1089 stems ≥ 5 cm diameter 449 were female, 383 were male and the rest were non-fertile. We also noted one apparently monoecious individual. Males produced flowers at smaller sizes than did females (minimum recorded diameters 5.5 cm and 6.8 cm, respectively). Both sexes had similar distributions, favouring moderately closed forest and mid-slope locations. Female trees were more frequently damaged and typically slightly shorter than males at large diameters. Seedling densities were positively associated with the presence of larger female trees. Our results are consistent with a life history where both sexes have similar requirements, but fruiting females experience a greater frequency of severe damage.

Determining the acceptability of a novel One Health vaccine for Rift Valley Fever prior to phase II/III clinical trials in Uganda

Several vaccine candidates for Rift Valley Fever (RVF) are in development for use in humans. A promising candidate, ChAdOx1 RVF vaccine, has been developed for use in both humans and animals, and has undergone field trials in livestock in Kenya. We conducted a qualitative study to explore the acceptability of this novel One Health vaccine for Rift Valley Fever prior to phase II/III trials, in two rural Ugandan cohorts between January to June 2020. Data was obtained from 96 semi-structured interviews at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) and Kyamulibwa, Kalungu District, in Southern Uganda. The study found that 42% of those interviewed were willing to receive a vaccine that was the same for both humans and animals. 45% of those interviewed said that they would not be willing to receive a One Health vaccine and a further 13% were unsure whether or not they would be happy to receive such a vaccine. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore their reasons for and against the acceptability of a novel One Health vaccine to highlight potential barriers to deployment once a vaccine candidate for RVF becomes available.

Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of the leaves and stem bark of Symphonia globulifera L.f. and Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk

IntroductionSymphonia globulifera and Allophylus abyssinicus are used in the management of skin rashes and sores, cough, malaria, digestive diseases, stomach ache, wounds and helminthic infections among others in Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Cameroon. This study aimed at determining the phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of these two plants.MethodsThe stem bark and leaves of both plants were collected from Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and air-dried under shade at room temperature. Cold maceration, decoction and infusion with methanol, water and ethyl acetate as solvents were used in phytochemical extraction. Preliminary qualitative screening and thin layer chromatography were used for phytochemical profiling. Antimicrobial activity was analysed by agar well diffusion assay, broth macro-dilution assay and fractional inhibition concentration index (FICI).ResultsThe leaves and stem bark of both plants have a diverse set of phytochemical compounds of variable polarity including, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, quinones and anthraquinones among others. Generally, methanol and water extracts of S. globulifera and A. abyssinicus had in-vitro bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa but weak fungistatic activity against Candida albicans. Allophylus abyssinicus leaf water and S. globulifera leaf methanol extract combination had a synergistic activity (ΣFICI = 0.37) against S. aureus. Similarly, A. abyssinicus stem bark water extract and A. abyssinicus leaf water extract combination had an additive effect (ΣFICI = 1) against P. aeruginosa.ConclusionThe leaves and stem bark crude extracts of S. globulifera and A. abyssinicus possess a wide range of bioactive phytochemical compounds but have weak antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa and C. albicans.

Long‐term funding of community projects has contributed to mitigation of illegal activities within a premier African protected area, Bwindi impenetrable National Park, Uganda

AbstractAt Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (hereafter Bwindi), illegal activities often provide major challenges to park management. In 1994, an Integrated Conservation and Development Program (ICDP) was introduced in Bwindi as a novel park management approach that included among others, funding of community projects in park adjacent communities. This study assessed key drivers of illegal activities and the impact of long‐term funding of community projects on illegal activities reduction in Bwindi. We used a 21‐year‐old illegal activities dataset, environmental drivers' dataset; a 21‐year‐old dataset of funded community projects and interviews data of 2734 households located around Bwindi for the study. A total of 3383 illegal activities and 338 funded community projects were recorded. Key drivers of illegal activities in Bwindi were accessibility and the number of funded community projects. Parishes with the highest number of community projects experienced fewer illegal activities. The number of illegal activities was negatively correlated with the number of funded community projects. Water and sanitation and household income‐generating projects were the most funded. In conclusion, long‐term funding of community projects contributed to reduction in illegal activities. A targeted approach of increasing community projects in those parishes that showed high incidences of illegal activities is recommended.

The management of mountain gorilla tourism in Uganda: Are the socio-economic benefits realised?

Despite being endangered, the mountain gorilla (gorilla beringei beringei) is inextricably linked to tourism. With only 1069 primates globally, expanded conservation initiatives need to be extended to allow for continuous and sustainable benefits from gorilla tourism. This unique tourism niche has positively changed the economies of Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where they are endemic. Vast opportunities emanate from the management and conservation of the great apes (e.g. poverty alleviation, economic growth, etc.). The study examined the management of mountain gorilla tourism and its socio-economic contribution to selected stakeholders in Butogota, a rural community next to the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP). To achieve this, structured face-to-face interviews were conducted with six stakeholder groups. In order to gather samples for the study, convenience sampling and snowball sampling were used. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire and analysed with the help of the constant comparative method. Key findings show that mountain gorilla tourism activities benefit people in a number of ways, including job creation, entrepreneurial opportunities and expanded local infrastructure. The study highlights key imperatives for the effective management of mountain gorilla tourism, including developing infrastructure, investment in training, empowerment of locals, controlled access, and more conservation and dealing with the persistent corruption problem.

Community health and human-animal contacts on the edges of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda.

Cross-species transmission of pathogens is intimately linked to human and environmental health. With limited healthcare and challenging living conditions, people living in poverty may be particularly susceptible to endemic and emerging diseases. Similarly, wildlife is impacted by human influences, including pathogen sharing, especially for species in close contact with people and domesticated animals. Here we investigate human and animal contacts and human health in a community living around the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda. We used contact and health survey data to identify opportunities for cross-species pathogen transmission, focusing mostly on people and the endangered mountain gorilla. We conducted a survey with background questions and self-reported diaries to investigate 100 participants’ health, such as symptoms and behaviours, and contact patterns, including direct contacts and sightings over a week. Contacts were revealed through networks, including humans, domestic, peri-domestic, and wild animal groups for 1) contacts seen in the week of background questionnaire completion, and 2) contacts seen during the diary week. Participants frequently felt unwell during the study, reporting from one to 10 disease symptoms at different intensity levels, with severe symptoms comprising 6.4% of the diary records and tiredness and headaches the most common symptoms. After human-human contacts, direct contact with livestock and peri-domestic animals were the most common. The contact networks were moderately connected and revealed a preference in contacts within the same taxon and within their taxa groups. Sightings of wildlife were much more common than touching. However, despite contact with wildlife being the rarest of all contact types, one direct contact with a gorilla with a timeline including concerning participant health symptoms was reported. When considering all interaction types, gorillas mostly exhibited intra-species contact, but were found to interact with five other species, including people and domestic animals. Our findings reveal a local human population with recurrent symptoms of illness in a location with intense exposure to factors that can increase pathogen transmission, such as direct contact with domestic and wild animals and proximity among animal species. Despite significant biases and study limitations, the information generated here can guide future studies, such as models for disease spread and One Health interventions.

Influence of Tangible Ecosystem Goods Encroachment on Host Community Well-being: A Case of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

The study was set out to investigate how encroachment on ecosystem tangible goods improves the host community well-being. The problem was that over harvesting of the tangible goods resulted in the degradation of the ecosystem and thus affected the quality and quantity of the tangible goods harvested and thus negatively affected the host community's wellbeing. The study had threefold objectives and these were; to describe the ecosystem destruction trends; to determine the driving forces behind the encroachment of the park ecosystems and, to ascertain the different ecosystem tangible goods harvested from the park. The literature of the study focused on local community wellbeing and encroachment as well as the causes of rampant encroachment of the ecosystems both in unprotected areas and in protected areas. The methodology of this study was majorly descriptive and considered the population of 40 households and a sample of 32 households as well the household used as a sampling unit. The results indicated that encroachment on ecosystems occurred and as a result the ecosystem size dwindled over the past three decades. Also, the results revealed that the major cause of this encroachment was scarcity of land and poverty. Whereas the most demanded ecosystem resources were timber and fuel wood. It was concluded that because there was no wellbeing amongst the host community due to poverty and scarcity of land, they were forced to encroach on the ecosystem resources. It was therefore recommended that the park and host community should find mechanisms to empower the host community in order to minimize encroachment rates.

Material Pacification: How a Conflict Over Paving Uganda’s Tourism Road Got Accidentally Resolved

ABSTRACT Starting from an Actor-network Theory (ANT) inspired relational perspective on object formation and material agency, this article analyses the controversies about plans to pave the Ruhija road through Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda). Based on interviews, ethnographic observations, and analysis of relevant documents, we examine the multiple ways in which the Ruhija road is enacted and objectified in conservation, tourism, and planning practices. We further show how these different objectifications of the Ruhija road not only led to enduring conflicts but also contributed to postponing the plans to pave the road. We argue that improving traction of the road pacified the conflicts. The partial solidification of the muddiest parts of the road unintentionally matched with the different “road realities” of the actors involved. Our analysis shows how the vibrancy of materiality is always relational, and can only be understood by taking into account the context of their objectification.

The importance of message framing in rule compliance by visitors during wildlife tourism

AbstractA conundrum of wildlife tourism is balancing wildlife conservation and tourist satisfaction. Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei) are a flagship species for biodiversity and there is worldwide interest in gorilla trekking safaris. This tourism provides substantial revenue to the government and local communities for gorilla protection, but puts them in danger of zoonotic diseases. To minimize disease transmission, health guidelines are in place for visitors whereby they are asked to remain 7 m from the endangered apes and stay in a cohesive group. Unfortunately, tourists often do not follow these rules and consequently their behavior puts gorillas at risk. The pre‐trekking messages presented to tourists in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda were changed to determine if the way messages are stated affects visitor adherence to rules. Tourists (n = 389) either received strategic messages that were positively or negatively framed in relation to expectations to follow specific rules to adhere to health guidelines, and tourist behavior was measured, such as the nearest distance they were to gorillas, and their cohesiveness. Using generalized linear mixed models, it was found that framing messages affected tourist behavior. Tourists who received a negatively framed message had a higher adherence to rules than those who received a positive or control message. They were 75% further from the gorillas (7.26 vs. 4.52 m), more cohesive (0.40 vs. 0.81 m to each other), and approached the gorillas less (0.34 vs. 1.32 times) than the control message. These findings demonstrate that communicating in different ways promotes changes in behavior by tourists, which reduces the chances of epizootic respiratory infections being passed to vulnerable animals. Strategic message framing should be widely considered as a cost‐effective mechanism to promote behavior change during ecotourism.

Africa: Mountain Gorillas Make A Comeback

There was a time, not long ago, when communities around Uganda’s Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park were the mountain gorillas’ worst enemies. When the gorillas crossed their gardens, the inhabitants living close to these dense green rainforests would sound an alarm to confront the animals, who were viewed as a menace. This almost certainly resulted in the deaths of many endangered mountain gorillas.

Effect of altitude on Mistletoe's distribution in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BNIP), Uganda

Effect of altitude on Mistletoe's distribution in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BNIP), Uganda

Mistletoes and their diversity in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Relatively little is known about the diversity, distribution, and community ecology of parasitic plants in the forests of equatorial Africa. We examined mistletoes in the mountain forests of the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Southwestern Uganda. We recorded 1,496 individual mistletoes in 64 0.1-ha plots (6.4 ha total), evenly distributed between open (forest-edge) and closed (forest-interior) locations and spanning an elevation range of 1160 to 2607 m above sea level. These mistletoes included 21 species, seven genera and two families and were recorded on 542 host trees comprising 45 tree species. Overall, mistletoes were more common in open than in closed conditions (356 ha-1 versus 129 ha-1). The most abundant mistletoe species was Englerina woodfordioides (Schweinf. ex Engl.) Balle (328 records) followed by Viscum fischeri Engl. (316 records). Six mistletoe species were recorded just once. Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. hosted the greatest diversity of mistletoes with nine species, while Maesa lanceolata Voigt hosted eight. Chao’s estimator indicates that mistletoe species richness across the whole forest likely exceeds 40 species which would be over ten percent of the mistletoe taxa known from the continent. The overall diversity and density of mistletoes appears high when compared to reported surveys from elsewhere. Mistletoes add significant botanical diversity in this forest and likely make a substantial contribution to its ecology.

Woodlot management and livelihoods in a tropical conservation landscape

In biodiversity hotspots, there is often tension between human needs and conservation, exacerbated when protected areas prevent access to natural resources. Forest-dependent people may compensate for exclusion by managing unprotected forests or cultivating planted woodlots. Outside Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda, household wood product needs are high and population growth puts pressure on the environment. We investigated the role of privately and collectively managed woodlots in provisioning wood products and supporting local livelihoods. We found that households relied heavily on woodlots for daily needs and as resources during time of need. We also found that locally relevant social institutions, called stretcher groups, played a role in the management of woodlots, providing shared community resources. Privately and collectively owned woodlots support local livelihoods and wood product needs in the region. Long-term management of forests in Uganda should consider the value of woodlots and the mechanisms required to support them.