Burial Environment Research Articles

ASSESSING A MODIFIED CARBONATE DIGESTION PROTOCOL FOR INCREASED CARBON DIOXIDE RECOVERY DURING CREMATED BONE PRETREATMENT

ABSTRACT Cremated bones are a commonly preserved material and often found in burial environments where unburned bone may not be preserved. As such direct radiocarbon dating of cremated bone could be essential in determining the chronology of an event. Pretreatment of cremated bone exploits the structural carbonate component of the bone which survives cremation. However, due to the low abundance (ca. 0.1%) of this component, the extraction of an amount of endogenous carbon sufficient for radiocarbon dating may represent a challenge. Here we investigate two modifications to the phosphoric acid digestion protocol used during the preparation of cremated bones at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). The first of these was to use ultrasonication to release evolved CO2 from the viscous phosphoric acid and cremated bone mixture that is formed during digestion. The second was to double the amount of time during which evolved CO2 was removed from the reaction vessel by transfer into a cryogenically cooled ampoule. Ultrasonication of the digestion mixture failed to produce a significantly higher carbon yield, while double-time collection resulted in an average 21.5±13.8% increase of C yield without affecting the measured age. Extending the collection time can better enable reliable dating of small (less than 1 g) samples.

Archaeological textiles preserved by copper mineralization

The mineralization mechanism responsible for the fossilization of archaeological textiles in close proximity to metal artifacts presents a sophisticated preservation process at both macro and micro levels. This study examines archaeological textiles dating from 2200 BC to AD 1900, sourced from three distinct archaeological sites. The focus is on understanding the microstructural degradation of fibers within a specific burial environment and the preservation achieved through mineralization. These archaeological fibers of archaeological textiles exhibit morphological preservation in the immediate vicinity of copper-based objects. Utilizing tools such as a digital camera, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), high-resolution synchrotron-based microtomography (μCT), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we examined fiber morphology, conducted elemental analysis, identified fiber types, and analyzed fiber characteristics. Our findings reveal the presence of smooth-surfaced wools and silks, fibers covered with calculi, and fiber impressions—all subjected to mineralization. These mineralized fibers can be categorized into three distinct stages of mineralization, each exhibiting varying carbon content. We inferred a correlation between mineralization rate and carbon content while also identifying mineralization density distribution on these textiles. Lastly, this study provides insights into the preservation states of textiles across three different mineralization stages, enriching our understanding of the deterioration of organic archaeological material.

Adsorption and Desorption Behavior of PAEs Plasticizer on PVC and Rubber Particles After Natural Environment Aging

Microplastics （MPs） coexist with plasticizers in the aqueous environment to form composite pollution, but the adsorption and desorption behaviors of MPs and plasticizers under natural conditions are unknown. Polyvinyl chloride （PVC） and rubber were used as the target MPs to characterize the changes in their morphological features after aging for one anniversary in atmospheric exposure and lake sedimentary burial environments and to investigate the adsorption and desorption behavior of the MPs to the coexisting phthalate esters （PAEs） plasticizer before and after aging. The results showed that the surface of MPs was rougher after exposure to the atmospheric environment and burial in a depositional environment, showing the characteristics of porous polymers. The carbonyl index （CI） of PVC and rubber increased by 62.2% and 321.2%, respectively, in the atmospheric environment and increased by 51.1% and 223.1%, respectively, in the depositional environment. The atmospheric exposure was capable of accelerating the aging process of MPs. PAEs were adsorbed on the surface of MPs through hydrophobic interaction, and the amount of adsorption was significantly and positively correlated with their hydrophobic properties. The adsorption capacity and adsorption rate of PVC on PAEs were inhibited after aging. Aging promoted the adsorption of rubber on strongly hydrophobic PAEs plasticizers and inhibited the adsorption of weakly hydrophobic PAEs. The environmental aging process reduced the desorption of strongly hydrophobic PAEs from rubber, enhanced the reversibility of rubber adsorption of weakly hydrophobic PAEs, and increased the desorption rate of PAEs from PVC.

Diagenesis of Cenomanian–Early Turonian and the Control of Carbonate Reservoirs in the Northern Central Arabian Basin

The carbonate reservoirs of Cenomanian–Early Turonian in the northeastern Central Arabian Basin hold considerable oil reserves and are great contributors to oil production. Diagenesis have a great impact on carbonate reservoir petrophysical properties, microstructure, and heterogeneity. By integrating cores, cast thin sections, regular core analysis, CT, and isotopes, this study provides an improved understanding of diagenesis in the Cenomanian–Early Turonian and its effect on carbonate reservoirs. The results showed that three diagenetic environments were identified in the Cenomanian–Early Turonian based on texture, structure, cement, crystal form, and crystal size, which were marine environment, meteoric environment, and burial environment. Six diageneses were identified based on residual bioclastic, secondary pores, calcite quantity, dolomite size, and stylolite, namely dissolution, cementation, micritization, dolomitization, compaction, and pressure solution. A micritization model in high energy sediment, a dolomitization model in burrows, and a comprehensive diagenetic model were established. It concluded that dissolution during meteoric environment is most favorable to reservoir physical properties, while cementation is least favorable. The cement content controls the microstructure and petrophysical property. Micritization is detrimental to the petrophysical properties, and the micrite it forms are distributed in the interparticle pores, reducing the reservoir property deposited in high energy environment. Dolomitization is less developed in substrate but widely developed in burrows, which result in the physical properties of the burrows being higher than those of substrate. Compaction and pressure solution have a negative impact on reservoir physical properties.

Effects of basin tectonic evolution on multi-phase dolomitization: Insights from the Middle Permian Qixia Formation of the NW Sichuan Basin, SW China

The platform-marginal shoal carbonates of the Middle Permian Qixia Formation in the NW Sichuan Basin, as important ultra-deep (>5000 m) hydrocarbon reservoirs, experienced multi-phase dolomitization and recrystallization during the long-term and complex basin tectonic evolution; however, there is no consensus on the dolomitization mechanism. Four types of dolomites have been identified: medium- and coarsely-crystalline dolomites within patchy dolomitized limestone (LD) at the top of the carbonate strata, massive medium to coarsely-crystalline dolomites categorized as porous dolomites (MD1) and tight dolomites (MD2) at the bottom of the carbonate strata, and cement coarsely saddle dolomites (SD) in the vugs and fractures. All dolomites exhibit similar REESN patterns to the host limestone with an obviously positively Ce anomaly, and show Sr isotopes falling in the range of Permian seawater. However, the LD dolomites display a higher Sr but lower Mn concentration, and more positive δ13C and δ18O than other types of dolomites. The petrographic and geochemical results suggest the dolomites of the Qixia Formation replaced precursor grainstone by the seawater-derived fluids. A comprehensive dolomitization model is proposed, incorporating seawater-reflux, intermediate-burial and tectonic-squeegee, and hydrothermal dolomitization for forming different types of dolomites. LD dolomites are early diagenetic products after selective dissolution under a near-surface or shallow burial environment, in which the weak-evaporated Permian seawater mixed with minor meteoric water accounting for dolomitizing fluids. MD1 and MD2 dolomites are likely to form due to the residually buried seawater for widely dolomitization driven by the Late Triassic tectonic compression. Subsequently, the dolomitic strata underwent hydrothermal modification due to rejuvenation of the thrust belt to enable saddle dolomites filling pre-forming porosity. This study integrates outcrop, petrographic, geochemical and dating analysis with paleogeography and tectonic events, providing a new perspective to establish a conceptual model for multi-phase dolomitization as an analog in comparative tectonic settings worldwide.

16S rRNA, metagenomics and 2bRAD-M sequencing to decode human thanatomicrobiome

Microorganisms are essential in the decomposition of corpses and play a significant role in forensic science. However, previous studies have primarily focused on animal remains, specifically the gut, skin, and burial environment. Insufficient research has been conducted on the microbiota of human cadavers, especially in cases of advanced decomposition and additional tissues, resulting in a lack of relevant reference data. In this study, the microbiota of eight cadavers at different stages of decomposition were detected using 16S rRNA, metagenomic sequencing and 2bRAD-M sequencing. Nine different sites, including oral and nasal cavities, heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, muscle and gut, were analysed and the efficacy of these methods was evaluated. The results showed that 16S rRNA sequencing was the most cost-effective method for the study of cadavers in the early stages of decomposition, whereas for cadaveric tissues in the late stages of decomposition, 2bRAD-M could overcome host contamination more effectively than metagenomic sequencing. This paves the way for new opportunities in data retrieval and promotes in-depth investigations into the microbiota.

Late Ordovician eurypterid preserves oldest euchelicerate musculature in pyrite.

Pyritization of soft tissues of invertebrates is rare in the fossil record. InNewYork State, it occurs in black shales of the Lorraine Group (Late Ordovician), the best-known example of which is Beecher's Trilobite Bed. Exceptional preservation at the quarry where this bed is exposed allowed detailed examination of trilobite and ostracod soft-tissue anatomy. Here, we present the first example of a eurypterid (sea scorpion) currently ascribed to Carcinosomatidae from this deposit that also preserves the first evidence for mesosomal musculature in eurypterids. This specimen demonstrates thateurypterid musculature can be preserved in pyrite and evidences the oldest example of euchelicerate muscles within the fossil record. Sulfur isotope data illustrate that pyrite rapidly replicated muscle tissue in the early burial environment, prior to the pyritization of biomineralized exoskeleton and cuticular trilobite limbs. This discovery therefore expands thelimited fossil record of euchelicerate musculature, while extending the taphonomic scope for preservation of detailed internal structures, more broadly, within arthropods.

Study of Corrsion System on Iron Artefacts through Neutronic Analysis

This study was conducted to confirm the possibility of using the corrosion products of iron artifacts and corrosion systems for non-destructive analysis using neutrons by applying the non-destructive analysis method and the destructive analysis method together to the analysis of the corrosion system of iron artifacts. As a result of transmission analysis, the shape of the artifact, the boundary between the metal layer and the corrosion layer, etc. could be confirmed, and through tomography, the shape, surface shape, and internal cross section of the artifact could be confirmed. It was confirmed that the corrosion thickness using the residual stress measurement method has a high reliability of less than 10% of an error compared to other analysis results, so it is highly likely to be used to measure the corrosion thickness. It was confirmed that the corrosion layer of the iron artifact analyzed this time was mainly Goethite among the types of DPL and was embedded with Magnetite/Maghemite. Since the neutron analysis can estimate the corrosion thickness non-destructive, it is highly likely to be used to study the corrosion rate of iron artifacts by burial environment through additional studies.

Study on chemical kinetics of leather degradation in conventional vegetable tanning and alkaline burial environment

Study on chemical kinetics of leather degradation in conventional vegetable tanning and alkaline burial environment

Freshwater microbial mud: Punctuated diagenesis during marine transgression in the Florida Everglades, USA

AbstractThis manuscript documents the diagenetic progression from deposition to early burial of freshwater low‐Mg calcite mud within a Holocene sequence of the Everglades and Florida Bay (Florida, USA). During initial, in situ burial, the texturally‐complex, organic‐rich mud, exhibits high susceptibility to alteration, within a primarily dissolution‐driven realm. Seaward, a brackish‐water transitional burial environment currently displays evidence of mixed precipitation and dissolution. This brackish stage burial alteration may be due to fluid exchange (a relatively high fluid‐to‐rock ratio) in a submerged estuary setting. Lastly, the burial environment in Florida Bay records a transgression from freshwater to near‐normal marine conditions. This island setting currently exhibits a diagenetic trend towards low‐Mg calcite precipitation in intervals of both the marine and freshwater mud. Burial of freshwater mud beneath nearly 3 m of marine mud during rising sea level appears to have preserved a considerable amount of original textures, as compared with younger freshwater deposits now within the transitional brackish‐water setting. Geochemical and textural data within the freshwater mud sections suggest that complex early diagenesis begins shortly after burial at the site of formation, and perhaps even during deposition. The findings herein document three major implications for coastal zone paludal carbonates: (i) that incipient textural diagenesis in low‐Mg calcite crystals can be extremely early and the stability and petrographic fidelity of these deposits are vulnerable due to the open, trellis‐like structure of the crystals; (ii) relatedly, the stable isotope signature of the original low‐Mg calcite crystals is also vulnerable to alteration by secondary precipitation within the open crystal structure; and (iii) during marine transgression, the paludal calcite crystals likely experience a shift from interstitial fluids that are dissolution‐dominated (freshwater) to more precipitation‐dominated as marine fluids overtake the pore fluid regime. Because palustrine deposits are used as palaeoenvironmental archives, it is important to understand their diagenetic and preservation potential. This study has implications for those concerned with the deposition, reactivity and preservation potential of continental and microbial carbonates.

Diagenetic history and porosity evolution of the Middle Permian clastic-carbonate mixed system, Indus Basin, Pakistan: Implications for reservoir development

This study deals with unraveling the diagenesis-induced porosity evolution in a mixed clastic-carbonate sequence of the Middle Permian Indus Basin, Pakistan. Multiple data sets including outcrop, petrography, cathodoluminescence, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), mineralogy, and geochemical isotopic compositions were integrated to establish a link between porosity evolution and diagenesis. The spatial thickness and facies variations of the strata at outcrop scale are inherently controlled by the underlying bathymetry of the basin with deepening westward trend. The low values of δ18O of the target strata, relative to average values of the Permian carbonate, hints to diagenetic alteration in the strata. The data sets used in this study reveal modification of the strata in four environments, that is, i) early marine diagenesis indicated by micritization, pervasive dolomitization and isopachous fibrous cements, followed by ii) meteoric dissolution, and iii) shallow burial diagenetic processes including the precipitation of blocky cement, compaction of skeletal and non-skeletal allochems, and stylolites, and iv) a deep burial environment, characterized by pressure solution, and micro-fractures. The clastic intervals host subangular to subrounded quartz grains, floating textures, and almost complete absence of deleterious clay minerals, consequently resulting in the preservation of primary porosity. The primary porosity of carbonate intervals is preserved in the form of intercrystalline and intracrystalline porosity. The secondary porosity evolved through various diagenetic phases in the form of fractures and dissolution. The diagenetic solution mediated by organic matter in carbonates may have experienced both bacterial decomposition and thermochemical sulfate reduction, precipitating sulfides within the pores. The plug porosity/permeability analyses generally suggest high porosity in the siliciclastic unit, and carbonates with wackestone fabric while lower values were observed for the inner shelf pure carbonate facies. However, both intervals show very low permeability values probably due to isolated moldic pores and intense micritization. Therefore, clastic intervals may provide an opportunity to serve as a moderate reservoir; however, the carbonate intervals possess very low permeability values and could generally be considered as low-moderate reservoir potential.

Metal Fragments of Roman Pipes from Pompeii: Investigations on Copper-Based Alloys, Corrosion Products, and Surface Treatments

This work reports the study of metal fragments from Roman pipes excavated from the archaeological site of Pompeii and currently preserved in the deposits of the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (MANN). The Roman pipe, called the tibia, is a reed wind musical instrument similar to the Greek aulos. It can be made of wood, bone, and/or metal. Materials consisting of metal Cu-based alloys were excavated from archaeological burial environments. This research aims to identify the composition of the alloys, characterize the corrosion patinas, and identify any ancient surface treatments on the fragments. Non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques were used to achieve this aim, i.e., optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectrophotometry, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectrometry. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the materials and manufacturing techniques used for these instruments, as well as the degradation processes occurring over the centuries.

A new laboratory‐based method to experimentally induce diagenetic modifications in human bone tissue using archaeological gravesoils

AbstractThe conditions of the burial environment trigger microstructural modifications and physical‐chemical changes in the bone, such as chemical dissolution, increase of crystallinity, chemical exchanges, collagen degradation and changes in porosity, hence to reproduce these patterns is a challenging task. This work presents a new method to accelerate the diagenetic processes in the laboratory. Artificial aging is obtained by immersion at 80°C in “enriched” solutions derived from the leaching of gravesoils, maintaining the same pH, for 1 month, on modern bones collected from an autopsy. Two distinct solutions from two graves of the necropolis of Travo (IT) (7th–8th century AD) were adopted. The induced damage patterns, on the bone microstructure and the organo‐mineral fraction, have been compared with those observed on buried skeletal elements from the same graves, by providing a multi‐analytical approach (BSE‐SEM, EMPA, FT‐IR, MP‐AES). Bioapatite parameters, such as crystallinity index and Ca/P molar ratio, evolved similarly and, in some cases, reached the same values of buried bones. Conversely, in the absence of microbial activity, the organic fraction better survived the artificial aging. For the same reason, the porosity due to bioerosion was absent in the artificially aged samples, whereas the biological pores and the post‐mortem fractures exhibited the same histomorphology. It is believed that the opportunity of reproducing the diagenetic changes by replicating the chemical environment of the burial site at the laboratory scale is of great interest to forensic science and archaeology (e.g., to reconstruct the burial environment).

Prediction and classification of chemical composition of ancient glass objects based on generalized Shapley functions.

Ancient glass products have suffered from the baptism of time and experienced changes in the burial environment and weathering, resulting in a change in the proportions of their chemical composition and interfering with their accurate identification by later generations. In this paper, the chemical composition of ancient glass products is predicted and identified. First, the multivariate statistical ANOVA test is applied to explore the relationship between whether the cultural relics samples are weathered or not and the glass type, decoration, and color to derive a law of chemical composition of the cultural relics and to analyze the correlation and difference among the four factors. Second, compared with the relevant data of the existing glass products, the missing values are processed by using the method of filling in the plurality. The weathering condition of the sampling points of the samples whose surfaces are not weathered is judged by the "distance discrimination method." Combined with the characteristics of the lead-barium glass and the high-potassium glass, the law of the chemical composition content on the surface of the samples, weathered or not, is explored. The modeling of the gray prediction method was applied again to predict the chemical composition content before weathering. Finally, the generalized Shapley function of fuzzy measurement was used to analyze the correlation between indicators and the chemical compositions and their differences. The scheme proposed in this paper can solve the difficult problem of category judgment in archeology, which is of great significance in promoting the smooth progress of archaeological work.

Insight into natural ageing of historic baltic amber objects by untargeted metabolomics approach

Cherished amber relics have undergone long-period burial environments carrying several ageing deterioration characteristics, such as crazing, discolouration, and decreased hardness, which makes amber artefacts fragile. Ageing is inevitable for amber exposed to air, emphasising the need for a suitable preservation environment based on the ageing mechanism. However, related research, specifically on the transformed compositions and structures of archaeological amber, has been limited due to complexities in deciphering the intricate components. In this research, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) were applied on geological and archaeological Baltic amber to find the ageing pathways. An untargeted metabolomics analysis developed for the linear modelling of molecular features data was utilised in combination with Py-GC/MS results, and statistically significant variations provided ten increased and ten decreased ageing markers. We propose an ageing mechanism for the succinite molecular structure, which involves oxidation of the polylabdanoid and hydrolysis of the esterification cross-link structure between succinic acid and labdanoid. Simultaneously, monoterpenes were released from the amber structure. Our untargeted Py-GC/MS metabolomics approach offers a groundbreaking and more systematic method for investigating the ageing mechanism of multi-component organic polymers in archaeological artefacts.

Analysis of Mineralization and Disease Characteristics of Bronzes Unearthed in Archaeology

Bronze artifacts unearthed by archaeologists are affected by underground burial environment and other factors, and most of them have different degrees of corrosion. Bronze artifacts unearthed by archaeologists have different degrees of mineralization. Establishing a data analysis database for basic structure and disease analysis of mineralized bronze artifacts is a necessary prerequisite for developing targeted reinforcement materials and realizing accurate protection. Based on the characteristic analysis of the mineralized bronzes, this paper systematically analyzed the mineralization and disease characteristics of the mineralized bronzes by Confocal Super Depth-of-Field Microscope(CSDTM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy spectrum analysis(EDS) and XRD, and compared and analyzed the microscopic morphology, composition and phase structure of the bronzes under the same burial environment, so as to provide support for subsequent targeted protection and reinforcement.

Long-term corrosion of copper alloys in the soil: new aspects of corrosion morphology in archaeological vessels from south-western Iran

A group of copper-based objects excavated at Deh Dumen cemetery, in south-western Iran, was studied and analysed to examine the long-term corrosion morphology and mechanism in the soil burial environment. For this purpose, twenty-two samples from twenty-one copper-based vessels were studied and analysed using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy—energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, micro-Raman spectroscopy and metallography techniques. The results of the analyses showed that the majority of vessels are made of tin bronze, along with two arsenical copper samples. The extent of corrosion observed ranges from very thin corrosion crusts to thick crusts and entirely corroded structures. These three identified corrosion morphologies display a multi-layered corrosion stratigraphy as well as the preserved limit of the original surface. The corrosion crusts include internal tin-rich and external copper-rich layers, and the main corrosion mechanism for the formation of multi-layered corrosion crusts is decuprification or selective dissolution of copper during the long-term burial time in a moderately Cl-contaminated soil. The three identified corrosion morphologies are similar to the previously published morphologies, but some clear deviations are apparent and are discussed here.

Comment on “Bacterial bioerosion of bones is a post-skeletonisation phenomenon and appears contingent on soil burial” [Quat. Int. 660 (2023) 75–83]

Histotaphonomic analysis, through thin section microscopy, SEM and micro-CT scanning, has become an increasingly popular approach for archaeologists in recent years. The method relies on assessing the character of degradation in bone microstructure, placing particular importance on the degree and nature of bacterial bioerosion. However, there remains considerable disagreement about the origins and timing of bacterial bioerosion and this has major ramifications for the interpretative potential of the approach. Turner-Walker et al. (2023) p resent a firm case for the origins of bacteria being exclusively exogenous (from the soil) with bioerosion occurring only after skeletonisation. This scenario means that information gained from analysis of histotaphonomy relates entirely to the nature of the burial environment and its suitability for collagenolytic bacteria to thrive and thus provides very little useful information about human behaviour and mortuary practice. This contrasts with the common position that the origins of bacteria can be enteric (from the gut) and can effect bioerosion during putrefaction in the early post-mortem phase, thus potentially informing on mortuary practice.In this response, we present the alternative view to Turner-Walker et al. (2023) and demonstrate strong and wide-ranging evidence for bacteria from the gut microbiome to have the potential to cause bioerosion. A review of previous studies is used to evidence the impact of mortuary practice on variable microstructural preservation. We counter some of Turner-Walker et al.‘s key lines of evidence and present alternative, evidence-based explanations. Importantly, we acknowledge that the origins of bacteria are not always enteric and that current interpretations that only consider bacteria as either enteric or exogenous cannot account for the variability seen in the archaeological record.

冀北四岔口盆地早期热河生物群的埋藏环境分析

冀北四岔口盆地早期热河生物群的埋藏环境分析

Multi-Analytical Techniques for the Study of Burial Clothes of Polish King Sigismund III Vasa (1566-1633) and His Wife Constance Habsburg (1588-1631).

The subjects of this research are the burial clothes of Polish King Sigismund III Vasa and his wife Constance, which were woven and embroidered with silk and metal threads. Fragments of the textiles underwent spectroscopic, spectrometric, and thermogravimetric analyses. The hydrofluoric acid extraction method was improved to isolate various classes of dyes from the textile samples that had direct contact with human remains. High-performance liquid chromatography, coupled with diode array and tandem mass spectrometry detectors with electrospray ionization (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS) facilitated the detection and identification of colorants present in the textiles. Cochineal, indigo-, madder-, orchil-, and tannin-producing plants were identified as the sources of dyes used. Scanning electron microscopy with an energy-dispersive X-ray detector (SEM-EDS) was employed to identify and characterize the silk fibers and mordants and the metal threads. The presence of iron, aluminum, sodium, and calcium in the silk threads suggests their potential use as mordants. The analysis of the metal threads revealed that most of them were made from flattened gilded silver wire, with only a few being cut from a sheet of metal. Typical degradation mechanisms of metal threads were shown, resulting from both burial environment and earlier manufacturing process, and the use of the textiles in clothing, i.e., a significant loss of the gold layer was observed in most of silver gilt threads, caused by abrasion and delamination. The results of the thermal analysis confirmed the presence of silk and silver threads in the examined textiles.