Bundles Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Spatiotemporal evolution and driving factors of ecosystem service bundle based on multi-scenario simulation in Beibu Gulf urban agglomeration, China.

Rapid urbanization is profoundly impacting the ecological environment and landscape patterns, leading to a decline in ecosystem services (ES) and posing threats to both ecological security and human well-being. This study aimed to identify the spatial and temporal patterns of ecosystem service bundles (ESB) in the Beibu Gulf urban agglomeration from 2000 to 2030, analyze the trajectory of ESB evolution, and elucidate the drivers behind ESB formation and evolution. We utilized the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model to establish baseline (BLS), carbon sequestration priority (CPS), and urbanization priority (UPS) scenarios for simulating land use patterns in 2030. Following the assessment of ecosystem service values (ESV) through the equivalent factor method, we identified the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of ESB using the K-means clustering algorithm. By employing stability mapping and landscape indices, we identified and analyzed various types of ESB evolutionary trajectories. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was employed to pinpoint the drivers of ESB formation and evolution. The results revealed that from 2000 to 2030, land use changes were primarily observed in cropland, forestland, and construction land. Between 2000 and 2020, 92.88% of the region did not experience shifts in ESB types. In UPS, the ESB pattern in the study area underwent significant changes, with only 76.68% of the region exhibiting stabilized trajectories, while the other two scenarios recorded percentages higher than 80%. Key drivers of ESB-type shifts included initial food provision services, elevation, slope, changes in the proportion of construction land, and population change. This multi-scenario simulation of ESB evolution due to land use changes aids in comprehending potential future development directions from diverse perspectives and serves as a valuable reference for formulating and changing ecological management policies and strategies.

The next step in suburban rural revitalization: Integrated whole-process landscape management linking ecosystem services and landscape characteristics

Suburban rural ecosystem, especially those adjacent to large cities, constitute a key component of rural and urban sustainability and resilience. However, urbanisation often exerts a negative impact on suburban rural landscapes, leading to ecological degradation. Despite making a significant contribution to multiple ecosystem services (ESs), suburban rural landscapes do not receive commensurate attention compared to urban themes, particularly on a smaller scale. We explored key drivers of land use dynamics in the suburban rural area of Jiangning, Nanjing, China, via a quantitative statistical mapping approach, utilising multi-source geospatial data from 2005 to 2018 and relevant ecological and socio-economic data that would enable the quantification of four key ecosystem services. Landscape functional zones characterised by ESs bundles were also identified, and their association with surrounding landscape attributes was statistically analysed. Our results highlighted urbanisation-induced population growth as the macro-context driving the development of Jiangning. The analysis yielded five distinct landscape functional zones (LFZs) that displayed synergistic relationships between their ESs, namely, carbon storage and soil retention, n-output and water yield. Furthermore, these results linked LFZs to environmental spatial characteristics and created detailed landscape elements for each zone, thereby emphasising the need for more comprehensive landscape planning and designing for ecological transition zones. We were thus able to imply zoning attributes-based rural landscape designs that may optimise ecological benefits. This study provides a systematic method to integrate ESs, landscape functional zones, and environmental spatial characteristics into the whole process management of suburban rural landscape planning. It aims to promote sustainable multifunctionality in suburban rural areas by providing spatial-level management indicators and landscape element-level design strategies for each LFZ, thereby revitalising the countryside from the perspective of landscape architecture.

Integrating historical patterns and future trends for ecological management zone identification and validation: A case study in Beijing, China

Ecological management zones (EMZs) are pivotal in improving the management of ecosystem services (ESs) and promoting sustainable regional development. In this study, we developed a comprehensive framework aimed at identifying EMZs and substantiating their efficacy through the amalgamation of historical evolutionary patterns and future trends. We applied this framework to Beijing, China, and selected five vital ESs for the study area namely, water yield (WY), carbon sequestration (CS), habitat quality (HQ), soil conservation (SC) and water purification (WP). The framework involves two key components. Firstly, the identification of EMZs is based on the historical evolution of five types of ESs and the dynamic assessment of ES bundles. Subsequently, it enables a simulation of various scenarios to predict future alterations in land use and ESs, thereby validating the effectiveness of the identified EMZs. Our findings reveal notable spatial heterogeneity among different ESs, and that CS, HQ, SC, and WP exhibited synergies, while WY and showed trade-offs with the remaining four types of ESs. Based on an analysis of ES bundle evolution trajectories, we identified four types of EMZs: ecological conservation zone, ecological restoration zone, ecological transition zone and sustainable construction zone. Through strategic EMZ planning, it becomes possible to augment the area of forestland and grassland, alleviate the contradiction between arable land and construction land, and enhance the supply of various ESs. The proposed framework not only offers a novel perspective on the scientific management of ESs but also furnishes decision-makers and planners with an intuitive understanding of the tangible benefits associated with EMZ planning.

Spatiotemporal characteristics and drivers of ecosystem service interactions in the Dongting Lake Basin

Uncovering the spatiotemporal features of ecosystem services (ESs) and their intricate interrelations in large lake basins can facilitate the development of scientific management measures for various ESs. Previous studies have focused less on watershed units and their historical dynamics, and the ecosystem service (ES) driving mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we focused on Hunan Province—the main coverage area of the Dongting Lake Basin (China's second largest freshwater lake), investigated the spatiotemporal characteristics of seven typical ESs and their interactions, identified the ecosystem service bundle (ESB) historical spatial patterns and revealed the socio-ecological driving mechanisms of these ES changes. Results showed that: (1) the spatial distribution of most ESs remained stable in the basin. Food production (FP), water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC) and net primary productivity (NPP) improved over time, whereas nitrogen retention (NR), habitat quality (HQ) and outdoor recreation (OR) declined; (2) tradeoffs were observed between food production and most ESs, whereas synergistic relationships between all ESs except food production. The tradeoff relationship between food production and water yield increased significantly over time, while the synergistic relationship between water yield and nitrogen retention decreased significantly; (3) five ecosystem service bundles were identified. And the transformation of soil conservation area into integrated ecological regulation area mainly occurred from 2000 to 2020, resulting in an increase in the function of ecological regulation services; (4) natural conditions such as precipitation, topography and vegetation, as well as socio-economic factors such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and population, were key factors affecting ESs. The interactions among most of these drivers can further elucidate the ES changes. Our results emphasize the need for a watershed-based assessment and a historical dynamic perspective in the sustainable management of ESs.

Motivation and perception of farmers on the benefits and challenges of agroforestry in Sweden (Northern Europe)

Agroforestry systems provide multiple benefits for human wellbeing and biodiversity; however, their diversity and spatial distribution has sharply declined across Europe. This study focuses on agroforestry farms in Sweden. The aim of the study was to explore farmers’ motivations to start agroforestry, what benefits farmers attributed to their agroforestry farms and perceived challenges to practising agroforestry in Sweden. In total, 13 farms that practise various agroforestry forms were selected as case studies. A focus group, semi-structured interviews and field observations were used for data collection. We identified four types of agroforestry systems such as silvopasture, silvoarable, forest farming and forest gardens established on different land such as forested or agricultural land. All studied agroforestry farms were small but had complex spatial and temporal arrangements of crops, trees and animals, which were crucial to generating multiple benefits. Our results show that the multifunctionality of agroforestry systems resulted from farmers’ desire to design such systems. Farmers’ intentions to get foods and materials from their farms were always intentionally unified with multiple ecosystem services. We argue that agroforestry farmers are designers of multifunctional landscapes, as they deliberately organised their farming activities to get a bundle of ecosystem services belonging to all four categories—provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural. However, the complexity of agroforestry management, lack of technologies suitable for small-scale agroforestry farms, limited plant materials (including seedlings) and limited knowledge about how to do agroforestry challenged the scaling up of agroforestry practices.

Multiscale Ecological Zoning Management with Coupled Ecosystem Service Bundles and Supply–Demand Balance, the Case of Hangzhou, China

Grasping the interrelationship between the supply and demand of ecosystem services (ESs) and spatial scale characteristics is the foundation for effective ecological zoning management, which helps to realize a win–win situation for both ecological protection and economic development. This paper focuses on the following three real problems: mismatch in ES supply and demand evaluation, mechanical and subjective delineation of ecological zoning, and rough management strategies, and constructs a multi-scale ecological zoning management framework for the “comprehensive evaluation of supply and demand, ecological zoning, and enhancement of human well-being”. This study integrates the InVEST model, SOM, Z-score quadrant matching, and coordination degree method, and applies them to the ecological management zoning of Hangzhou. The results show that (1) the spatial differentiation of ESs in Hangzhou is significant. The spatial pattern of the five types of ES supply varies at the county scale and the grid scale on which ES demand is concentrated and is consistent at different scales. (2) ES supply–demand matching in Hangzhou is at the basic coordination and can be divided into four modes including HH, LH, LL, and HL at both the county and grid scales. On the small scale, the proportion of mismatches declines slightly, but the severity rises. (3) ES supply is divided into four categories as follows: the food production bundle, the carbon storage bundle, the ESs balancing bundle, and the ESs depleting bundle, and clarifies the priority of ES management. (4) Construct an ecological management practice path, delineates 6 ecological management zones at the county scale and 19 secondary management zones at the grid scale. Targeted measures are proposed in terms of supply–demand adjustment strategies, ecological management strategies, and key implementation areas. This study helps to incorporate the interaction between the supply and demand of ESs into the planning framework and provides decision-making support for refined ecological management.

Evaluating and simulating the impact of afforestation policy on land use and ecosystem services trade-offs in Linyi, China

Forest can provide multiple benefits, such as supplying a variety of ecosystem services. However, the planet is currently at risk of deforestation as a result of increased urbanization and growing food demand. Countries around the world have introduced a wide range of policies to mitigate this issue. In China, the Linyi City government has launched the cross-county forest credit market transactions (CFCMT) policy, which showcased significant innovations in compliance credits and transaction entities to enhance motivation for afforestation. This study creates a no-policy counterfactual scenario to analyze the woodland growth and ecosystem service trade-offs between 2013 and 2021. The results demonstrate that the woodland grew faster after this policy, with a growth rate 1.78 times higher than that from 2013 to 2017. The areas of woodland growth with the policy are mainly located on the edges of cropland and woodland. The increased woodland primarily originates from cropland conversion, and compared to the no-policy scenario, these growing woodlands have gentler slopes and lower altitudes. After the policy’s enforcement, there were more increases in carbon storage, soil retention, and habitat quality. And ecosystem services showed a more optimizing trend in the direction of synergy at grid and town scales. We also find that larger spatial scales exhibit synergies and less accurately represent trade-off/synergistic change trends. The ecosystem services bundle consisting of carbon stocks, soil conservation and habitat quality showed a significant increase. This study reveals woodland growth and trade-offs among ecosystem services after the implementation of CFCMT policy, offering valuable insights for future afforestation policy optimization and promotion.

Utilizing supply-demand bundles in Nature-based Recreation offers insights into specific strategies for sustainable tourism management

Balancing supply and demand in Nature-based Recreation (NbR) has the potential to yield co-benefits across multiple Ecosystem Services (ES), helping to make tourism activities more sustainable. However, a comprehensive understanding of supply-demand mismatches in NbR is challenging due to the complex interaction among various social, economic and ecological factors. This paper investigates mismatches in NbR supply and demand to provide insights for informing spatial and regional planning to achieve sustainable tourism. To this end, the paper uses a wide range of indicators such as biophysical attributes, accessibility and social indicators to map and assess NbR supply and demand, followed by the application of spatial statistics to analyse supply-demand mismatches. Cluster analysis was performed based on the supply-demand relationship to identify a typology of NbR ES across the study area in the north of Iran. The paper proposes an innovative application of recreation ES bundles with potential implications for sustainable tourism in a region marked as a hot spot for tourism. The analysis generated a typology of five bundles of NbR ES with differing recreational opportunities. Bundles 1 and 2, characterized by a supply surplus and substantial ecological value, are suitable for NbR activities such as camping, hiking, climbing, and birdwatching. In contrast, bundle 4 and 5 associated with urban centres, experience a supply deficit, making them less suitable for NbR. Bundle 3, characterized by a mixture of natural and productive lands, plays an important role in maintaining a balanced supply-demand state. This region holds potential for diverse forms of tourism, including rural and agricultural recreation such as farm tours and farm life experiences. Based on findings, the paper provides valuable insights for spatial and regional planning by proposing targeted strategies to sustainably manage tourism activities.

Assessment and Management Zoning of Ecosystem Service Trade-Off/Synergy Based on the Social–Ecological Balance: A Case of the Chang-Zhu-Tan Metropolitan Area

Clarifying the trade-offs/synergies of ecosystem services is crucial for achieving a win-win situation in economic development and ecological conservation. Past studies have lacked research on ecosystem service functional management zones that integrate socio-economic factors and ecological conservation, particularly based on predictive scenarios. Based on the above, this study innovatively established a multi scenario simulation model and framework (EST-EMZ) for the study of ecosystem service (ES) trade-off/synergy and ecological management zoning, combining remote sensing and socio-economic data from 2000 to 2020 in the Chang-Zhu-Tan Metropolitan Area (CZTMA). The model evaluates the dynamic trade-offs/synergies among different ecosystem services under various scenarios, aiming to seek the optimal management approach for enhancing the functionality and optimizing the structure of ESs in the future of the CZTMA. The results indicate the following: (1) From 2000 to 2020, the Ecosystem Service Value (ESV) of the CZTMA gradually declined from 601.57 billion yuan to 584.65 billion yuan. Under the three future scenarios, the ESV also decreased, with the Ecological Conservation Scenario (ECS) experiencing the most minor decline, and the Economic Priority Scenario (EPS) witnessing the most substantial decrease. (2) In the historical period and the 2030 predicted scenarios, there is a predominant synergy among paired ESs in the CZTMA. Throughout the study period, the region’s dominant ecosystem service bundle (ESB) is the high-service ecological regulation bundle, primarily located in the northeastern, western, and southern areas dominated by forests. (3) Based on ESV and urbanization intensity (UI), five different ecosystem management zones were identified: water balance zone (WBZ), coordinated improvement zone (CIZ), ecologically weak zone (EWZ), ecological conservation zone (ECZ), and ecological derivative zone (EDZ). Corresponding management and protection strategies for ecosystem services were proposed. The research findings offer potential solutions for optimizing land use and managing the trade-offs of ESs in metropolitan areas.

Exploring the Relationships between Tradeoffs and Synergies among Island Ecosystem Service Bundles: A Study on Zhoushan Archipelago Located on the Southeast Coast of China

Due to the rapid rise of China’s coastal economic zone, the urbanization of the surrounding islands has accelerated. Intensive disturbance caused by human activities and frequent changes in land types have resulted in the continuous erosion of ecological sources and the degradation of ecosystem services on the islands year by year. It is particularly important to explore sustainable development strategies for the islands to achieve a balance between conservation and development, which is particularly important for the islands in the process of urbanization. Taking Zhoushan Archipelago as an example, this paper uses multi-source spatial data and employs InVEST models and USLE to quantify island ecosystem services. Furthermore, using principal component analysis and cluster analysis, the study aims to identify clusters of island ecosystem services and investigate their tradeoffs, synergistic mechanisms, and regional heterogeneity using spatial analysis. In addition to providing island urban planners with effective zoning governance recommendations and assistance in spatial planning to promote coordinated and sustainable development, the findings of this study can assist in the development of appropriate management plans for each ecological functional service cluster on islands.

Mapping ecosystem service clusters and exploring their driving mechanisms in karst peak-cluster depression regions in China

Understanding the intricate interrelationships among ecosystem services (ESs) and exploring their driving mechanisms are prerequisites for their efficient management. The southwestern karst region is a typical ecologically fragile area and a crucial component for establishing an ecological security barrier in southern China. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between ESs and the concept of ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) and explore the distribution of ESs and their interrelationships. Using methods, such as Spearman's correlation and spatial autocorrelation analysis, this study focused on the karst peak-cluster depression region in southwestern China to analyse the trade-offs and synergistic effects among 12 ESs. Additionally, this study used the self-organizing map to identify ESBs and used the Random Forest model to explore the potential driving factors influencing the distribution patterns of ESs. The results indicated a spatial clustering effect among the 12 ESs, whereby provisioning and cultural services had the most significant clustering effect (Moran's I > 0.8). A total of 25 pairs of ESs exhibited synergistic effects, and 31 pairs showed trade-off effects. Food production showed a trade-off with both regulatory and supporting services, whereas ESs within the same category tended to exhibit synergistic effects. The distribution and interrelationships of ESs are influenced by natural and social factors, such as climate, topography, and human activities, resulting in the formation of six ESBs. This study enriches the understanding of the relationship of ESs and will contribute to the coordinated development of resources and the environment in the karst peak-cluster depression region of southwestern China.

Exploring the interrelations and driving factors among typical ecosystem services in the Yangtze river economic Belt, China

Exploring the spatiotemporal characteristics of ecosystem services (ESs) and their drivers is crucial for managers to develop significant scientific policies that further sustainable development. We used the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) to explore the trends, hotspots, and drivers of water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), carbon sequestration (CS), and food supply (FS) between 2000 and 2020. Similarly, we analyzed relationships among ESs and drivers of the multiple ecosystem services landscape index (MESLI). We used the self-organizing map method to obtain the types and distribution of the ES bundles, revealing the bundles, trade-offs, and synergies among ESs. The four ESs had an increasing trend, with CS having the highest increase; ES hotspot analysis showed differences among upper, middle, and lower reaches. Constraint lines among ESs and drivers were diverse; the corresponding SC and WY reached thresholds when CS values were 1477.81 and 460.5 t km−2, respectively. When FS values were 67.34 and 86.17 × 104 Yuan·km−2, CS and WY reached their thresholds. All critical drivers of the four ESs were natural factors. The thresholds that the MESLI reached with driver status were 1000 mm (evapotranspiration), 2121 mm (precipitation), 2.42° (slope), 1.46% (soil organic matter), 36.08% (sand), 30.75% (proportion of non-agricultural population), 18.57% (cropland proportion), 1.05 × 104 persons·km−2 (population density), and 84.84% (proportion of non-agricultural industries in total gross domestic product), respectively. FS, water supply, and ecological conservation bundles changed over the 20 years, and trade-offs and synergies among ESs within bundles differed. We revealed the complexity of ESs from multiple perspectives, which will enable the development of ecosystem management and conservation recommendations for the YREB and large-scale economic zones worldwide.

Identification of bundles and driving factors of ecosystem services at multiple scales in the eastern China region

Intensive human activities have caused serious damage to the natural environment and threatened ecosystem services, while the relationships between ecosystem services at different spatial scales vary to some extent. Therefore, identifying different patterns, evolutionary trends, and influencing factors of ecosystem services at different scales is more helpful in providing scientific decision-making for sustainable ecosystem management. Taking eastern China as the research area, with the help of a Gaussian mixture model, redundancy analysis and geographically weighted regression models, the spatiotemporal pattern evolution of ecosystem services from multiple scale perspectives were conducted, and the interrelationships between ecosystem services and the driving factors were explored. It expanded the knowledge of ecosystem services, the relationships between ecosystem services, and how the socio-ecological drivers of ecosystems vary at different spatial scales, and enabled more precise manipulation of socio-ecological drivers through different driving models. The average value of ecosystem services in the southern region was 0.672, which was better than that in the northern region, which was 0.353. Ecosystem services were lower in regions with a wide distribution of arable land and high population density and economic development. The relationship between ecosystem services was more manifested as synergistic relationship. As the scale expanded, the synergies and trade-offs between most ESs were also stronger and the average increase was 18.42 %. Especially, the relationships between some services developed from synergistic relationships at small scales to trade-offs at the county level. From the perspective of ecosystem service bundle, the overall ecosystem environment of the research area has been greatly improved, with enhanced supply function and weakened vulnerability. The area of ecosystem provisioning bundles increased by an average of 10.31 % as the scale increased, while the ecosystem regulation bundle decreased by 7.33 %. By comparison, the non-spatially driven model had better accuracy at the scale of 1 km2 and 100 km2, while the spatially driven model had higher accuracy at the county scale. Besides, normalized difference vegetation index occupied an absolute dominant position, and the natural elements acted more at the micro-scale, while the socio-economic elements were more influential at the macro-scale. These results provided a basis for subsequent research on multi-scale ecosystem control and ecological compensation strategies, and showed that natural and social factors were scale-dependent, that it was necessary to study ecosystem services, and emphasized the importance of developing appropriate policies at particular scales.

Spatio-temporal dynamics and socio-ecological determinants of ecosystem service interplays in Shandong Province's coastal region (2000–2020): Implications for environmental protection and sustainable ecosystem management

The sustainable management of multiple concurrent ecosystem services (ESs) requires a comprehensive understanding of the interconnections between various ESs. In this study, we develop spatial maps for six distinct ESs using a variety of models, and we quantify their trade-offs, synergies, and bundling patterns through spatial mapping and statistical methodologies. We further delve into the antagonistic and synergistic dynamics between different ESs within each Ecosystem Service Bundle (ESB), and employ GeoDetector to pinpoint the key drivers of each ES. Our findings reveal that: (1) The spatial distributions of ESs are heterogeneous, with most ESs exhibiting a downward trend except for GP and SC, which are on the rise. CS shows positive correlations with all other five ES indicators. HQ exhibits positive correlations with SC and RS, whereas negative correlations are observed between HQ-GP and WC-RS. Six ES pairs demonstrate a decline in synergistic relationships, but an increase in trade-off relationships. (2) We distinguish six types of ESBs, each differing in their combination and extent of ES provision. The trade-offs and synergies within these distinct ESBs display both commonalities and differences. In certain ESBs, supply services display synergistic relationships with other ESs. We leverage ES bundles as the foundation for studying spatial planning zoning, revealing a diversity in the interactions between different ES pairs and the driving factors of ES. Therefore, we establish the theoretical basis for formulating spatial planning on the interrelationships and drivers of ES under spatial and temporal changes. We anticipate that our findings will offer valuable scientific insight for the development of future ecological conservation and spatial planning strategies in the region.

Identifying eco-functional zones on the Chinese Loess Plateau using ecosystem service bundles

Optimizing the function of ecosystem services (ESs) is vital for implementing regional ecological management strategies. In this study, we used multi-source data and integrated modelling methods to assess the spatiotemporal variations in eight typical ESs on the Chinese Loess Plateau from 2000 to 2015, including grain production, raw material provision, water conservation, carbon storage service, soil conservation, oxygen production, recreation, and net primary productivity (NPP) services. Then, we divided the ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) according to relationships among the eight ESs, obtaining four types of eco-functional areas at the county (city or banner or district) level based on the spatial clustering of similarities in different ES types. We also identified and assessed the contributions of influencing factors to these eco-functional areas using principal component analysis (PCA) across spatiotemporal scales. We found that the spatiotemporal variations in different ESs were noticeable, with an overall increase in grain production and soil conservation services, no significant change in carbon storage service, and overall decreases in raw material provision, water conservation, oxygen production, recreation, and NPP services. From 2000 to 2015, the number of significant synergistic ES pairs decreased, while that of significant trade-off pairs increased. To the changes of ESBs in the eco-functional areas, the results indicated that the indirect loss of these ESs from forest and grassland due to urban expansion should be reduced in ecological development area (ESB 2) and multi ecological functional area (ESB 3). Meanwhile, crop planting structures and planting densities should be adjusted to reduce ES trade-offs associated with water conservation service in grain-producing area (ESB 4). Lastly, ESB-based eco-functional zoning can be used to improve ecological restoration management strategies and optimize ecological compensation schemes in ecologically fragile area (ESB 1).

Supply-demand bundles and ecological function management of urban ecosystem services: Taking central urban area of Qiqihar as an example

The comprehensive management of multiple ecosystem services is the focus of current research in the field of ecosystem service. The ecological space in the central urban area is scarce, but ecological needs are diverse. How to scientifically use urban land while considering various ecological functions has gradually become an academic hotspot. Taking the central urban area of Qiqihar as an example, we applied the ecosystem service bundle theory to analyze the supply and demand relationship of five ecosystem services in the study area, including flood regulation, air purification, carbon storage and sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and cultural recreation. Based on the supply-demand ratio, we identified the supply-demand bundles of ecosystem services in the study area, completed the division of ecological functional areas, and proposed corresponding spatial control strategies. The results showed that the supply of those five services presented a spatial pattern of low in the city center and south side, while high in the northwest and southeast side, and that the demand for those five services presented a spatial pattern of high in the city center and low around the city. Air purification, biodiversity conservation, and cultural recreation ser-vices were in short supply, with a supply-demand ratio of -0.160, -0.071, and -0.008, respectively. The supply to demand ratios of flood regulation and carbon storage and sequestration services were in excess, with a supply to demand ratio of 0.089 and 0.008, respectively. The spatial imbalance between supply and demand of various services was significant. The research area could be divided into six types of ecosystem service bundles. After comprehensive analysis, the research area would be further divided into four types of zones: urban ecological restoration zone, urban ecological strengthening zone, urban development transition zone, and urban ecological conservation zone. We proposed targeted functional optimization strategies based on the spatial relationship, ecological background characteristics, and supply and demand ratios of various services within the zone.

Trade-offs and synergies relationships of ecosystem services and their socio-ecological driving factors under different spatial scales in Shaoguan City, Guangdong, China.

Ecosystem services refer to the benefits that human obtain from natural ecosystems. Different ecosystem services are generated by the combination of social-ecological driving factors, and exhibit different spatial patterns across scales. The complex relationships and driving mechanisms among ecosystem services under different spatial scales remain unclear. With Shaoguan City from Guangdong Province as the study area, we analyzed the spatial patterns and relationships of four ecosystem services and their trade-offs/synergies (TOSs), quantified their responses to seven social-ecological drivers at the kilometer grid scale and sub-watershed scale, and proposed regional ecologi-cal management and planning strategies for cross-scale sustainable development. The results showed that the spatial distribution of ecosystem services in Shaoguan City exhibited spatial clustering and cross-scale variations. Habitat quality, water yield, and carbon storage exhibited similar spatial distribution pattern. High supply was mainly distributed in mountainous areas in the east, north, west, and south, while weak supply was distributed in plain areas in the central, northwest, south and northeast. In addition, the spatial clustering of these services intensified with increasing spatial scale. Ecosystem services displayed synergistic relationships at both spatial scales, and the intensity of the synergy changed with scale. At both the kilometer grid and sub-watershed scale, the primary drivers for ecosystem services were the normalized vegetation index and digital elevation model. The main driver for TOSs was the mean annual temperature at the kilometer grid scale, while it was the mean annual evapotranspiration at the sub-watershed scale. Based on the supply levels of ecosystem services, the study area could be divided into five distinct ecosystem service bundles, i.e., mountain ecological balance zone, forest ecological conservation zone, urban forest maintenance zone, ecologically sensitive zone, and ecological risk zone. All bundles exhibited both spatial heterogeneity and cross-scale variations. We integrated the cross-scale variations of four representative ecosystem services and their complex interactions and driving mechanisms in Shaoguan City into spatial planning to facilitate the sustainable ecosystem management across multiple scales, which could offer valuable references for the construction of ecological civilization in other regions.

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of ecosystem service interactions and their drivers at different spatial scales in the Yellow River Basin

Accurately understanding ecosystem service (ES) interactions and an analysis of the complex, multiscale driving mechanisms are foundational prerequisites for implementing effective multiscale ES management. This study dives into the spatial and temporal variations of ES interactions in the Yellow River Basin across four spatial scales. The eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) model is later deployed to pinpoint the key drivers of ecosystem services and their indirect pathways to ESs are illuminated utilizing Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that (1) The synergistic effect between ES pairs in the Yellow River Basin surpasses that of trade-offs. Various types of ecosystem service bundles have transformed into each other from 2000 to 2020, and the spatial patterns of ES interactions bear resemblances at different scales. (2) The factors driving habitat quality (HQ), carbon sequestration (CS), and landscape aesthetics (LA) are mainly the landscape configuration and biophysical conditions. The factor driving food production (FP) is mainly the level of urbanization, whereas soil conservation (SC) and water yield (WY) are mainly subject to climate. (3) When biophysical conditions and level of urbanization serve as mediating variables in pathways, driving factors invariably have negative indirect effects on ESs. When landscape configuration serves as a mediating variable, biophysical conditions positively influence HQ and CS, and negatively impact FP, WY, and LA. Conversely, the level of urbanization negatively affects all ESs. (4) The combination of XGBoost and PLS-SEM offers a comprehensive and innovative lens for analyzing ESs driving mechanisms. Based on our findings, scientific management of ESs should account not only for the direct impacts of driving elements but also for their scale and indirect effects.

Understanding the effects of socio-ecological factors on trade-offs and synergies among ecosystem services to support urban sustainable management: A case study of Beijing, China

Understanding the complex impact of socio-ecological factors on ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies (EST/ESS) is critical in delivering multiple benefits to various stakeholders. However, the impact mechanism is poorly understood. To portray more clearly the actual changes in EST/ESS resulting from the configuration of socio-ecological factors in urban development, this study proposes a methodological framework to quantify EST/ESS for Beijing's zones and identify the mechanism by which EST/ESS interacts with socio-ecological factors. First, we quantified four key ecosystem services (ESs) that showed declining trends between 2000 and 2020. We then identified three landscape functional zones based on ES bundles and quantified EST/ESS intensity. Consistent with our prediction, there were significant differences of EST/ESS in ES pairs between zones, demonstrating the necessity of zoning management. We further applied structural equation modeling to analyze the mechanism of how socio-ecological factors influence EST/ESS. The pathways and intensities varied across regions, where vegetation cover and landscape configurations played mediating roles, whereas natural, physical, and biological factors, socioeconomic, and climatic factors, influenced EST/ESS mainly through indirect effects. Finally, based on the mechanism explored, we proposed strategies for zoning planning. These findings have practical implications for sustainable management in Beijing and other regions.

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity and driving factors of ecosystem service relationships and bundles in a typical agropastoral ecotone

Complex geographical environments and intensified human activities have induced significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity in ecosystem services (ESs) and their relationships worldwide, especially in agropastoral ecotones. Identifying the ecological and socioeconomic driving factors of the spatiotemporal dynamics of the relationships and bundles among multiple ESs is essential for effective agropastoral ecotone management and restoration. Herein, five key ESs, including water yield (WY), carbon sequestration (CS), sand fixation (SF), soil conservation (SC), and food production (FP), in the northern piedmont of the Yinshan Mountains (NPYM), a typical agropastoral ecotone, were quantified from 1990 to 2018. Ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) were identified by the K-means algorithm, and the trade-offs/synergies among the different ESs in each ESB were investigated using Spearman’s correlation analysis. Moreover, the main driving factors of the spatiotemporal dynamics of the ES relationships and ESBs were identified by the geographical detector model. Our results showed that the five ESs in the NPYM exhibited high spatiotemporal heterogeneity over the last three decades, with WY, SC and FP significantly improving over time but CS and SF slightly decreasing. Considering the ecological features and spatial distribution, the NPYM could be divided into four ESBs: the grassland protection bundle (GPB), desertification control bundle (DCB), agricultural production bundle (APB) and forest conservation bundle (FCB). Although trade-offs between WY and CS and synergy between SC and CS occurred in almost all ESBs, significant differences in the relationships between the other ESs were observed in the different ESBs. Generally, land use type was one of the dominant drivers of most ES relationships in all ESBs, especially in the APB. However, climate, vegetation and socioeconomic factors also played important roles in the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of various ES relationships in some bundles. Moreover, the substantial changes in the different ESBs over the last three decades were mainly due to climatic and socioeconomic factors. Overall, our results indicated that identifying the spatiotemporal heterogeneity and driving factors of ES relationships and ESBs could provide useful guidance for developing targeted zoning management strategies in agropastoral ecotones.