Bulgur Production Research Articles

Kinetics of chemical and color changes in wheat and water during atmospheric cooking as affected by the acidity, hardness, and iron content of water.

Color changes in wheat and cooking water, which affect the quality of bulgur and wastewater, are important. Understanding the impacts of cooking water acidity, hardness, and iron content is significant for producing bright-yellow colored bulgur and determining the possible negative effects of cooking water on the environment. Thereby, the gelatinization degree and color (L*, a*, b*, and yellowness index) of wheat cooked with waters at different pH (3, 5, 7, 9, and 11), hardness (soft, hard, and very hard), and iron content (0, 1, and 2mg/L) were determined every 10min of cooking. pH, Brix, conductivity, hardness, turbidity, and color of cooking waters were also determined and kinetically modeled. After cooking, it was revealed that cooking with water at pH 3 favored the color of cooked wheat, whereas pH 11 caused darkening. Nevertheless, as the wastewater pH of cooking waters with pH 3 and 11 may be harmful to the environment, it is recommended to use water in the range of pH 5-9 for bulgur production. Cooking with very hard water is also not recommended as it causes some adverse effects such as diminishing the gelatinization rate in wheat, increasing the cooking time, and negatively affecting the color.

Future of durum wheat research and breeding: Insights from early career researchers.

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) is globally cultivated for pasta, couscous, and bulgur production. With the changing climate and growing world population, the need to significantly increase durum production to meet the anticipated demand is paramount. This review summarizes recent advancements in durum research, encompassing the exploitation of existing and novel genetic diversity, exploration of potential new diversity sources, breeding for climate-resilient varieties, enhancements in production and management practices, and the utilization of modern technologies in breeding and cultivar development. In comparison to bread wheat (T. aestivum), the durum wheat community and production area are considerably smaller, often comprising many small-family farmers, notably in African and Asian countries. Public breeding programs such as the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) play a pivotal role in providing new and adapted cultivars for these small-scale growers. We spotlight the contributions of these and others in this review. Additionally, we offer our recommendations on key areas for the durum research community to explore in addressing the challenges posed by climate change while striving to enhance durum production and sustainability. As part of the Wheat Initiative, the Expert Working Group on Durum Wheat Genomics and Breeding recognizes the significance of collaborative efforts in advancing toward a shared objective. We hope the insights presented in this review stimulate future research and deliberations on the trajectory for durum wheat genomics and breeding.

Assessment of iron content of cooking water on bulgur by determining chemical, mineral, colour, textural and thermal characteristics.

Bulgur, a whole wheat product, has attracted attention in the world in recent years because of its wide usage possibility in different meals. The basic ingredients in bulgur production are wheat and water. The influence of water composition on bulgur quality has not been investigated. Iron in water can cause discolouration in foods by oxidizing and reacting with phenolic compounds and also by hardening the structure of the foods. Therefore, in the present study, the effects of the iron content of water on the quality of bulgur were examined. The effect of the amount of iron in water on bulgur quality was carried out and examined using water containing iron at three different levels (0, 1 and 2 ppm). Using water containing 2 ppm iron in bulgur production caused a decrease in the L* value and an increase in the YI (i.e. yellowness index), thus negatively affecting the colour of the bulgur. In bulgur prepared with water containing 2 ppm iron, the antioxidant activity was also dramatically reduced. The iron content in the water used in bulgur production did not have a negative effect on bulgur quality up to 2 ppm. The protein, ash, phenolic and mineral amounts and textural characteristics of bulgur were not affected by the concentration of iron in the water. As a result, high iron concentration in cooking water negatively affects bulgur's colour and antioxidant activity. Therefore, it is recommended to use iron-free water in bulgur production. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

High-beta-glucan and low-glycemic index functional bulgur produced from high-beta-glucan barley

A high β-glucan hull-less barley (cv. Chifaa) was used in bulgur production and its technological and nutritional properties were compared with bulgurs of another hull-less barley and durum wheat. Although Chifaa bulgur had longer cooking time (9.5 min) which is expected to have an increasing effect on total organic matter (TOM), it had lower TOM (1.31 g/100 g) than the durum bulgur. The phenolics of barleys were significantly higher than those of Kiziltan wheat. The amounts of total phenolic contents decreased after bulgur production. While glycemic index (GI) of durum bulgur was high, GI of barley bulgurs were medium probably due to their higher β-glucan contents. The GI of Chifaa (56.25) is very close to the limit value of low GI foods (56). The limit to bear the health claim is 3 g of β-glucans/serving. The results indicated that this can be provided per serving of high β-glucan barley bulgur.

Influence of cooking water hardness on the chemical, colour and textural characteristics of bulgur at different processing stages

The hardness of water is important for food quality where it is used as a direct ingredient in production, thus it is a very critical parameter for the texture and colour of bulgur as it is used in the cooking operation. In line with this fact, the effects of water with 3 different hardness (soft, hard and very hard) on the proximate composition, functional properties, mineral composition, colour, texture, thermal, structural and sensory characteristics in wheat, cooked wheat and after drying, debranning and milling stages of wheat (fine bulgur) were investigated. Production of bulgur with very hard water contributes to the retention of minerals in the structure of wheat and therefore the bulgur produced. Water hardness negatively affected the antioxidant activity of wheat samples after cooking and the drying, debranning and milling stages. Colour and sensory analysis proved that cooking with very hard water has a reducing influence on the yellowness of bulgur which causes a production defect. Based on the obtained results, it is recommended to use soft water in bulgur production as cooking with very hard water influences the functional and sensory properties of the product adversely.

Exploring biochemical profile, antioxidant activity and structural properties of Bulgur prepared from traditional and autoclave methods

ABSTRACT The objective of the current research is to explore the nutritional, structural, and sensorial properties of bulgur prepared from different wheat cultivars. For the purpose, three different wheat cultivars, i.e., Dilkash-2020, Akbar-2019, and Anaj-2017, were procured and evaluated for their physicochemical characteristics using respective methods. In addition, structural properties of product (bulgur) were characterized through Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy. Results elucidated that physicochemical characteristics of Dilkash-2020 were significantly (p ≤ .05) higher as compared to Akbar-2019, followed by Anaj-2017. Moreover, autoclave technique retained the nutritional profile of bulgur as compared to traditional cooking methods. It is observed that protein (12.7 ± 0.04%), fibers (12.5 ± 0.07%), minerals contents and antioxidant activity were significantly improved in bulgur (Dilkash-2020) processed through autoclave. Additionally, autoclave method retained the nutritional profile and antioxidant activity of bulgur. The mineral composition of bulgur revealed that calcium content in bulgur ranged from 368 ± 0.02–532 ± 0.00 mg/kg, potassium (745 ± 0.05–948 ± 0.03 mg/kg), iron (30 ± 0.04–53 ± 0.01 mg/kg) and sodium (168 ± 0.03–318 ± 0.11 mg/kg). In FTIR spectra, different phytochemical groups were identified especially alkene, halo, alcohol, organic-nitro, carbon aromatic and thiol groups. Furthermore, sensorial scores of bulgur prepared from autoclave were also higher than traditional method. In addition, overall acceptability of Dilkash-2020 bulgur was higher as compared to other varieties. Conclusively, wheat Dilkash-2020 has significant potential for bulgur production and autoclave is an effective method to retain the nutritional profile of bulgur.

The effects of genotypic variation in hulled wheat species and cooking methods on some quality parameters of bulgur

In this study, it is aimed to determine the effects of cooking methods on bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of bulgur samples produced from different hulled wheat species. Regardless of the cooking methods, total carotenoid content (4.81 µg LE/g DM) and antioxidant activity (9.68% inh./mg DM) were found higher in bulgur samples produced from emmer lines while bulgur samples produced from einkorn lines were rich for total phenolic content (791.94 µg GAE/g) and ferulic acid content (759.49 µg/g). On the other hand, microwave cooking had generally promising results for nutritional quality of bulgur in general. Obtained results in this study illustrate that the hulled wheat species einkorn and emmer have a huge potential to compete with durum wheat in industrial bulgur production with their nutritional properties although the compatible interactions varied by the genotype and the cooking method for each parameter. Novelty impact statement Microwave cooking as cooking method and emmer wheat as raw material were found to be promising for bulgur production. Intra- and interspecies variability and the cooking method can significantly alter nutritional properties of bulgur.

Bulgur bran as a biopolymer source: Production and characterization of nanocellulose-reinforced hemicellulose-based biodegradable films with decreased water solubility

Bulgur bran is a lignocellulosic side-stream of bulgur production factories. Separation of bulgur bran into cellulose- and hemicellulose-rich fractions paved the way of utilization of this under-exploited agro-industrial biomass. Although hemicellulose-based biodegradable food packaging films provide significant advantages, their high water solubility and low mechanical strength are obstacles to their commercialization. To overcome these bottlenecks, commercial cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) and cellulose nanofiber (CNF) were incorporated into the hemicellulose matrix. Besides, addition of citric acid (CA) was investigated for its plasticizing effect. To minimize the film water solubility (FWS) statistical optimization by Box-Behnken design (BBD) and response surface methodology (RSM) was employed. The proposed full-quadratic model was found to have high accuracy (R2 = 0.9877) within 95 % confidence interval. The results revealed that 10 % (w/w) CNC- and 10 % (w/w) CNF-incorporated films exhibited 21.3 % reduction in FWS compared to neat films. CNC- and CNF-reinforced films showed a compact structure in SEM analysis. CNC and CNF as fillers in the hemicellulose network markedly improved the tensile strength of the films. Nanocellulose incorporation caused a decrease in water vapor permeability (WVP), light transmittance, total color difference and biodegradability of the films. The properties of nanocellulose-reinforced and neat films were also compared using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Presence of nanocelluloses in the films increased the glass transition temperature (Tg) by around 15 °C as shown by DSC analysis.

A new gluten‐free product: Brown rice bulgur, and its physical and chemical properties

In this research, a new alternative food product, defined as brown rice bulgur (BRB), rich in functional components compared to white rice and cooked in a short time compared to brown rice was developed for society especially individuals with gluten intolerance and celiac disease. BRB was produced with two different methods as boiling (BRB-B) and steaming (BRB-S). The cooking time of raw brown rice decreased from 30 to 9 min in BRB samples. The phytic acid content of BRB samples decreased by about 15% and enzyme resistant starch content of BRB-B and BRB-S samples increased by about 9% and 21% compared to brown rice, respectively. The produced BRB samples were in the medium GI food group. In conclusion, it was evaluated that the newly developed BRB is superior than brown rice, white rice, and wheat bulgur in terms of short cooking time, lower GI, and being gluten-free, respectively. Practical applications In this study, brown rice bulgur has been produced from brown rice, unpreferable by consumers due to its long cooking time, hard texture, and dark color, with wheat bulgur production method. This new food product includes the advantages of wheat bulgur such as resistivity to insect and mold activity because of applied high-temperature thermal process and drying process, but do not include the disadvantages of brown rice such as long cooking time. Additionally, it could be attention to some consumers because of being a new gluten-free product. The obtained data can help diversify this product in the food industry.

A Systematic Review of Durum Wheat: Enhancing Production Systems by Exploring Genotype, Environment, and Management (G × E × M) Synergies.

According to the UN-FAO, agricultural production must increase by 50% by 2050 to meet global demand for food. This goal can be accomplished, in part, by the development of improved cultivars coupled with modern best management practices. Overall, wheat production on farms will have to increase significantly to meet future demand, and in the face of a changing climate that poses risk to even current rates of production. Durum wheat [Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum (Desf.)] is used largely for pasta, couscous and bulgur production. Durum producers face a range of factors spanning abiotic (frost damage, drought, and sprouting) and biotic (weed, disease, and insect pests) stresses that impact yields and quality specifications desired by export market end-users. Serious biotic threats include Fusarium head blight (FHB) and weed pest pressures, which have increased as a result of herbicide resistance. While genetic progress for yield and quality is on pace with common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), development of resistant durum cultivars to FHB is still lagging. Thus, successful biotic and abiotic threat mitigation are ideal case studies in Genotype (G) × Environment (E) × Management (M) interactions where superior cultivars (G) are grown in at-risk regions (E) and require unique approaches to management (M) for sustainable durum production. Transformational approaches to research are needed in order for agronomists, breeders and durum producers to overcome production constraints. Designing robust agronomic systems for durum demands scientific creativity and foresight based on a deep understanding of constitutive components and their innumerable interactions with each other and the environment. This encompasses development of durum production systems that suit specific agro-ecozones and close the yield gap between genetic potential and on-farm achieved yield. Advances in individual technologies (e.g., genetic improvements, new pesticides, seeding technologies) are of little benefit until they are melded into resilient G × E × M systems that will flourish in the field under unpredictable conditions of prairie farmlands. We explore how recent genetic progress and selected management innovations can lead to a resilient and transformative durum production system.

Effects of wheat cultivar, cooking method, and bulgur type on nutritional quality characteristics of bulgur

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different wheat cultivars, cooking methods, and bulgur types on nutritional quality of bulgur. Cultivars, cooking methods, and bulgur types had significant effects on phytic acid, total phosphorus, soluble, insoluble, and total dietary fibre contents of bulgur. Besides, cultivars and cooking methods were found to have significant effects on yellow pigment, thiamine, and riboflavin contents of bulgur. The results indicated that the variation among genotypes was wide on all parameters investigated. Bulgur cooked using the steam cooker cooking method had better nutritional properties. Regardless of the cooking method, fine bulgur type had higher nutritional values. However, it was observed that there were losses in nutritional values (ranging from 17.5% to 55.7%) during bulgur production from wheat. The losses resulted particularly from cooking and debranning steps during bulgur production. It can be concluded that the steam cooker cooking method showed promising results in terms of the nutritional quality of the bulgur.

Quality, sensorial and textural properties of einkorn and durum bulgur produced with several methods

In this research, bulgur samples were produced with einkorn (Triticum monococcum) and durum (Triticum durum) wheat species by six different processes; combinations of three cooking (traditional, microwave, autoclave) and two drying (hot air, microwave) techniques. Hectoliter weight, thousand kernel weight, foreign material content and some composition analysis were performed to wheat samples. Color properties and bulgur quality properties like yield, optimum cooking time, volume increase and water absorption of the samples were determined. Sensory and texture profile analyzes were also performed to the bulgur samples. Einkorn wheat is a good source of nutrient components like durum wheat; however, significant differences were observed between wheat species and bulgur production methods, in terms of physical, technological and textural properties. Cooking time of the einkorn bulgur was found two times less than durum bulgur. Lower cooking times also resulted in lower water absorption and volume increase in einkorn samples. Durum wheat was found to have better coarse bulgur yield than einkorn but no difference in total yield. It was determined that bulgur production positively affected the color of durum samples but darkened einkorn samples. Einkorn bulgur was found to have acceptable textural and sensorial properties compared to durum samples. Traditional cooking + hot-air drying and microwave cooking + hot-air drying methods can be recommended for both wheat varieties because of the negative effects of autoclave cooking and microwave drying on various properties.

Effects of several production methods on technological, textural and sensorial properties of emmer (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) bulgur.

In recent years, the interest in primitive wheat species including emmer (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) wheat and their characteristics have increased due to natural food trends. Bulgur is a nutritious and healthy product with long shelf life, produced from hard wheat species without the need for any additives. The basis of this study was to reveal the potential for bulgur production by the six production methods, combinations of three cooking (traditional, autoclave, microwave) and two drying (hot-air, microwave) methods of emmer wheat. In addition to some physical, chemical and technological properties of emmer wheat, yield, color, cooking time and textural and sensorial properties of the bulgur samples were investigated and statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were recorded among the bulgur samples. Autoclave cooking had a negative effect on color and got the lowest sensorial acceptability scores. Microwave drying increased fine bulgur formation and shortened the cooking time. The volume and weight increase indexes were increased more than hot-air drying thanks to physical effects of microwave drying on the structure. According to the texture analysis results, microwave cooking increased the adhesivity, and microwave drying increased hardness and springiness. In conclusion, emmer wheat have great potential for bulgur production, and traditional cooked + hot air dried samples had better bulgur properties in overall.

Effects of drying methods (hot air, microwave, and superheated steam) on physicochemical and nutritional properties of bulgur prepared from high‐amylose and waxy hull‐less barley

AbstractBackground and objectivesBulgur, an ancient and traditional food extensively consumed in Turkey and the Middle East, has been gaining popularity elsewhere as a nutritious and convenient cereal product with prolonged shelf life. The cooking, drying, and comminution methods used for bulgur production may affect the color, yield, chemical composition, nutritive quality, and physical properties of bulgur. The objectives of this study were to produce bulgur from high‐amylose and waxy hull‐less barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) varieties and to investigate the effects of different drying methods: hot air, microwave, and superheated steam on the physicochemical and nutritional properties of barley bulgur.FindingsDifferent drying methods applied in this study for the preparation of barley bulgur had significant effects on the physicochemical and nutritious properties of the final products. Bulgur products from high‐amylose barley (cv. CDC Hilose) contained lower amounts of proteins, but higher amounts of ash, arabinoxylans, resistant starch, total dietary fiber, and vitamin E than bulgur products from waxy barley (cv. CDC Marlina). However, bulgur products from CDC Marlina exhibited significantly higher solubility of β‐glucans compared with bulgur from CDC Hilose.ConclusionsOverall, the optimal quality characteristics in terms of high bulgur yield, short cooking time, low cooking losses, high β‐glucan solubility, and high retention of vitamin E were achieved for bulgur prepared from grain dried with superheated steam at 110°C. The second best results were obtained for bulgur prepared from the microwave‐dried grain. Some differences in composition and properties of bulgur prepared from waxy and high‐amylose barley were related to genetic variations and differences in starch composition. The higher content of total dietary fiber in bulgur products from CDC Hilose was partly attributed to a higher content of resistant starch formed during the processing of this high‐amylose barley.Significance and noveltyBarley has been long considered a wholesome and nutritious grain, and the results of this study clearly showed that it can be used for the preparation of bulgur, a convenient and functional food product. The use of superheated steam as a drying method for the preparation of barley bulgur proved to generate product with superior properties, especially when compared to conventional hot air drying.

Effects of different cooking and drying methods on phenolic acids, carotenoids, and antioxidant activity of emmer (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) bulgur

AbstractBackground and objectivesEmmer (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) is an ancient hulled wheat with a high amount of nutrient and bioactive compounds. This study was aimed to investigate the changes in bioactive compounds and antioxidant activities of the emmer bulgurs produced by combinations of three cooking (traditional, autoclave, and microwave) and two drying (hot air and microwave) methods. The total polyphenol, carotenoid, antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power), and soluble‐free (SF), soluble‐conjugated (SC) and insoluble‐bound (IB) phenolic acid contents were determined.FindingsBioactive compounds and antioxidant activity decreased significantly in all bulgur production methods compared to emmer wheat. SF and SC phenolic acids of the bulgur samples decreased much more than IB phenolic acids, due to the better thermal stability of IB fraction. While microwave cooking was found to have a positive effect, microwave drying had a negative effect on preserving natural bioactive compounds.ConclusionsThe bulgur preparation method that most preserved the bioactive compounds was microwave cooking + hot air drying, followed by autoclave cooking + hot air.Significance and noveltyAs a primitive species, emmer is a valuable raw material with a growing interest in its properties and products. This is the first study aimed to compare the effects of several production methods on the bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of emmer bulgur.

Effects of wheat cultivar, cooking method, and bulgur type on the yield and colour properties of bulgur

Making bulgur is an ancient process and bulgur may, in fact, be man’s first processed food. Technological improvement is essential in order to achieve higher quality bulgur. The steam cooker is gaining popularity these days since it preserves the nutritional value of the food during the cooking. In the present study, coarse and fine bulgur types were produced from bread and durum wheat cultivars by using steam cooker and autoclave to determine the effects of cultivar, cooking method, and bulgur type on the yield and colour properties of bulgur. The less total bulgur yield was determined at durum wheat cultivars and autoclave cooking method because of the higher amount of bran removed. The percentage of the bulgur samples having a particle size ranging between 2.0 and 2.5 mm was the highest for both cooking methods. Durum wheat cultivars possessed harder and more breakable grain structure during the bulgur production, which caused 11.9% less coarse and 11.4% more fine bulgur yields. The kernels cooked in steam cooker also tended to break more during the debranning process which raised about 20% more fine bulgur yield. Bulgur produced from durum wheat cultivars possessed higher lightness (L) and yellowness (b), and lower redness (a) colour values. During the bulgur production, a decrease (11.6%) in ‘L’ colour value and an increase (164.6%) in ‘a’ colour value was determined from raw material to bulgur. The application of high temperature and pressure used for autoclave cooking caused darkening of bulgur colour. The coarse bulgur type had higher ‘L’ colour value and lower ‘a’ colour value. The steam cooker has been utilised for the first time in bulgur production as a cooking method, although it causes a higher amount of breakage of the kernels, the bulgur maintains the yellowish colour which is a desired trait.

Comparison of industrial and homemade bulgur produced from einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum ) and durum wheat (Triticum durum ): Physicochemical, nutritional and microtextural properties

Einkorn (Triticum monococcum) is a diploid hulled wheat which is still cultivated inTurkey, Italy, and some Balkan countries. Bulgur is a parboiled or steamed, dry and partially debranned whole wheat product. Although bulgur is produced generally from durum wheat in many countries, Einkorn bulgur is a traditional food widely known and produced in the countries where grown and cultivated Einkorn. Provided that the basic production method remains the same, some preparing techniques can be changed and produced as industrially and homemade. Depending on the process and raw materials, physicochemical and nutritional properties of bulgur can vary. In this study, the impact of bulgur production processing on the einkorn and durum wheats was investigated for the first time. The physicochemical analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and ICP-OES techniques were applied to the comparison of the wheat and bulgur samples. Practical applications The differences between the microstructural properties of Einkorn and durum wheat/bulgur were shown with the SEM micrographs. While the physicochemical properties were not been affected by the production method of einkorn bulgur, they were affected by the type of the wheat. Furthermore, the boiling method of the einkorn bulgur samples affected the appearance of the microstructural texture. The traditional shape and size of the einkorn bulgur were found inappropriate to the present Turkish Food Codex bulgur communiqué. Moreover, einkorn bulgur contained higher amount ash and fat content, and of trace and major elements especially in terms of Zn, Fe, and Al.

Modification of mechanical polishing operation using preheating systems to improve the bulgur color

Bulgur is an increasingly popular foodstuff that has existed since antiquity, and one that displays high consumption worldwide. Polishing is a key operation to improve the yellow color of bulgur which, by extension, also improves the competitiveness in business and markets. In this study, the traditional electrical heater-aided mechanical polishing system (EHA-MP) was modified with preheating systems so as to decrease the energy consumption and to improve the bulgur color. Additionally, it was investigated that the effects of the tempering methods (spray and steam) before polishing, the preheating (microwave and infrared, at 40, 60 and 80 °C) by determining changes in the bulgur color (CIE L*, CIE b*, CIE a*, CIE YI), total carotenoid content (TCC), chemical composition (moisture, ash and protein contents, %, d.b.) and the energy consumption of the process. Both tempering methods increased significantly (P ≤ 0.05) the CIE L* and CIE b* values of bulgur. The temperature of polishing increased the TCC of bulgur significantly (P ≤ 0.01). Infrared preheating was the most economical method according to energy consumption. Taken together, these new findings offer new insights and improvements in the bulgur production and its attendant business competitiveness and responds to demands by consumers.

Effect of different production techniques on bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) and durum (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) bulgur.

The influence of cooking (traditional, microwave, autoclave) and drying techniques (microwave and hot air) on bioactive compounds in the production of einkorn and durum bulgur were investigated. Total phenolic content (TPC), total yellow pigment (TYP), total antioxidant capacity (DPPH• , ABTS•+ , FRAP), soluble free (SF), soluble conjugated (SC) and insoluble bound (IB) phenolic acid contents of the samples were determined. For both wheats, a significant amount of antioxidant capacity was preserved after bulgur production. TPC was found to be higher in einkorn but it was exposed to greater loss during bulgur production than durum. The amount of TYP was found to be two-fold higher in einkorn than in durum. Ferulic acid was recorded as the most phenolic acid, and chlorogenic was the least phenolic acid in both wheats. The maximum loss during bulgur production was determined in the SC fraction for einkorn and in the SF fraction for durum. In respect of the results of the analysis, microwave cooking + hot air drying treatment could be favourable for bulgur production for both wheats. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Infrared drying: A promising technique for bulgur production

Bulgur is a very famous industrially processed ancient wheat product. High nutritional value, long shelf life and low price of bulgur increased the demand in new and developing markets all over the world. Cooking and drying are the most critical steps in bulgur production and should be controlled carefully and adapted with new technologies. Infrared (IR) drying has obtained a great interest in the food industry, due to its advantages over conventional heating. In this study, durum and bread wheat samples were cooked under atmospheric pressure or in autoclave and dried by using infrared at 525, 666 and 814 W powers for 3:30, 2:10 and 1:20 h, respectively. Control samples were either sun-dried for 72 h or dried in oven at 60 °C for 18 h. For the samples cooked in autoclave, amount of bran removed during debranning was lower and cooking loss was slightly higher. IR-dried samples generally gave comparable results with controls in terms of color, particle size, cooking loss, ash, dietary fiber and water absorption values. The ash and cooking loss values of all bulgur samples meet the levels indicated in Bulgur Communiqué. Infrared drying shows great promise in bulgur production by reducing drying time without causing any deterioration in bulgur quality.