Asian Buddhism Research Articles

양 무제의 육식 금지령에 나타난 윤리적 쟁점 - 『단주육문(斷酒肉文)』을 중심으로

In East Asian Buddhism, the consumption of meat by monks has not been permitted since the sixth century. During this period, Emperor Wu of Liang, drawing from the teachings of Mahayana sutras including the Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra, issued the 'Prohibition of Alcohol and Meat' (斷酒肉令). At the heart of Emperor Wu's prohibition of meat consumption is the ethical judgment that “meat-eating is inherently killing.” Emperor Wu maintained a strict stance that monks should not eat meat under any circumstances, including naturally deceased meat (自死) or for health reasons. This view contrasted with early Buddhist food ethics, differentiating between meat-eating and killing and allowing for the Three Pure Meats (三種淨肉). He also believed that monastic vegetarianism was essential for realizing the ideals of Mahayana Buddhism and establishing a harmonious society. Emperor Wu asserted that meat-eating inherently distanced one from all practices leading to nirvana, making enlightenment unattainable. While he did not directly challenge the autonomy of the monastic community in the Duan jiu rou wen (斷酒肉文 Abstinence from Alcohol and Meat), he argued that meat-eating monks had effectively forfeited their monastic status and could be punished according to secular laws. This paper examines the differing perspectives of Emperor Wu and the Vinaya masters on the ethical issues surrounding meat-eating and vegetarianism as presented in the Duan jiu rou wen. This decree, officially issued by the Emperor to standardize Buddhist vegetarianism, is significant as the historical starting point of East Asian Buddhism—not just as a theory but also as a practice. It also serves as a point of comparison for the contemporary approach to this ethical issue, which is still relevant today.

Dignāga’s Transformation of Cognitive Logic into East Asian Buddhist logic - Focusing on The Controversy Surrounding the Inference that it is Yusigbilyang(唯識比量) of Xianzang(玄奘)-

Dignāga’s Transformation of Cognitive Logic into East Asian Buddhist logic - Focusing on The Controversy Surrounding the Inference that it is Yusigbilyang(唯識比量) of Xianzang(玄奘)-

Arboreal Assemblages and Ecologies of Feeling: The Bodhi Tree in the Buddhist Reform Movement in Colonial South Asia

This article centres on the Bodhi tree, aśvattha/pippala or Ficus religiosa, in Bodh Gaya, India. It analyses the tree as an assemblage by combining concepts from the ancient Buddhist Pali literature with recent interventions in new materialism and posthumanism. The text foregrounds the role of emotions in the relational cosmologies of both early South Asian Buddhist texts and contemporary general ecology, tracing how they connect the tree-as-assemblage with other human and nonhuman actors. This allows the article to recover an emergent agency in the assemblage, informing a re-examination of the tree’s role in the Buddhist reform movement in colonial India, specifically in its connections to the Anagarika Dharmapala and the Maha Bodhi Society. Besides its contribution to the history of Buddhism in colonial modernity, the article thus develops theoretical reflections on writing history beyond anthropocentrism by mobilising the potential of South Asian vernacular philosophies to speak to contemporary issues in philosophy and the Anthropocene at large.

The reincarnation of the Asian Buddhist peril: White Christian nationalism and contestations of mindfulness in K-12 public schools

This article explores legal contestations to school based mindfulness programs in the context of an increasingly overt White Christian nationalist agenda in the United States. By illuminating the force and logic of White Christian nationalism in education, I demonstrate that though Christian organizations’ legal opposition to mindfulness is framed around defending First Amendment Establishment Clause protections in schools, their ultimate objective is to safeguard Christian hegemony and structurally reinforce a racial-religious belief of the US as a White Christian nation. Interrogating the discursive invocation of Buddhism as a “danger” helps to reveal this intention, and its exclusionary function. In this light, I trace how the claims of Buddhist treachery recall and reaffirm 19th century White Christian nationalist imaginations of Asian immigrants as embodying dangerously foreign religions and inassimilable behaviors in order to facilitate their legal exclusion from the nation. Understanding this historical context sheds light on the ways these Christian legal contentions of mindfulness attempt to maintain a historical racial-religious subjugation of Asians as a “Yellow Peril” and inculcate anti-Asian phobias of national invasion. Thus, I also argue that the current legal disputes over mindfulness are not new assertions of White Christian nationalism. Rather, they illuminate the ongoing legacy of White Christian nationalism, and represent attempts to maintain the structure’s hegemonic positioning in the 21st century. In highlighting these arguments, this article demonstrates that we cannot understand the debate around mindfulness in schools (and secular mindfulness programs themselves) without understanding the White Christian nationalist history of Asian racial-religious exclusion in the US.

Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace: History, Activities, Development Prospects

Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace: History, Activities, Development Prospects

Prolegomena to the study of Youxi Sanmei 遊戲三昧 Buddhist sacred play between agonism and mimicry

ABSTRACT This article outlines a genealogical profile of an elusive doctrinal concept that, after being discussed in several Mahāyāna sutras, had a significant impact on East Asian Buddhist traditions. This notion is known as ‘playful samādhi’, in Chinese youxi sanmei 遊戲三昧, which translates to Sanskrit vikrīḍita samādhi. The compound youxi 遊戲 (‘playful’ – ‘at play’) was cited in Chinese sutras and Buddhist documents, in renowned and widely diffused collections of gongans/kōans 公案, was expounded and commented on by Dōgen Zenji 道元禅師 (1200–1253) in its Japanese version yuge 遊戲 and was explored by modern scholars and interpreters as Ryōsuke Ōhashi 大橋良介 and Wu Rujun 吳汝均, who compares youxi 遊戲 with Schiller’s Spieltrieb . Given the significance of ‘playful samādhi’ across different epochs and cultures, I believe a clarification of the term is especially needed. Furthermore, explicit reference to contemporary scholarship on play studies can help uncover its philosophical implications, shedding new light on a complex notion that defies a univocal interpretation and reunites in its semantic field both the aesthetic and religious dimensions.

The Contents Are the Vessel: Snod bcud Beyond Nature

Reflecting on the implications of Dipesh Chakrabarty's "The Climate of History" for a critical Buddhist Studies of/for the Anthropocene, this article introduces a seven-hundred-years-old reflection among Inner Asian Buddhist scholastics about the perspectival tangle of worlds and beings. Rooted in canonical Indian Abhidharma literature and then the Tibetan Pakpa Chökyi Lodrö's didactic compositions meant for the princelings of the 13th century Mongolian Empire, Tibetan and Mongolian authors have long considered the ontological and epistemic nature of environments, beings, and perceiving minds in relation. Tracing an intellectual history leading into the Mongolian revolutionary period and Tibetan refugee diaspora in the twentieth century, this article shows that Inner Asian Buddhist have never been burdened by the tyranny of Nature and Culture, whose conceptual blurring in the Anthropocene Chakrabarty cites as imperiling the Humanities. Let the Humanities, as such, die. Finding resonances with earlier perspectival constructions of nature in the work of Alexander von Humboldt, the 19th century father of ecological studies, as well as critiques of nature/nurture in body and disability studies, this article argues for using Inner Asian perspectives as new methodological resources in the ruins of liberal humanism and the normative human sciences.

Affective Entanglements: Human-Nonhuman Relations in Buddhist Ecologies of Feeling

This article reflects on key concepts in early South Asian Buddhism and their potential for creative dialogue with current concepts of research at the philosophical forefront of ecological thinking. It explores the role of feelings---that is, both bodily affects and culturally formed emotions---as crucial in negotiating the relations between humans and nonhumans and their environments. To this end, the concept of affective entanglement is proposed as a way of describing and analysing the condition of constitutive ecological linkage articulated through feelings and based in the fundamental interdependence of all phenomena in the world. Through careful analysis of a series of important early Buddhist Pali texts dealing with forested environments, this article explores how the early Buddhist teaching can challenge and enrich how we think of persons and bodies in relation to other beings and environments. Through a discussion of the powerful emotion of fear and the importance of vulnerability, the article develops thoughts on how Buddhist emotional practices as practices of care can inspire new approaches in today's times of escalating ecological crisis and acute vulnerability in coexisting and intersecting human and nonhuman pluriworlds.

The Great Disciple Mahākassapa and his Parinibbāna

The 80 great disciples (asīti mahāsāvakas) are a conceptual category found in Pali commentarial literature dating from the 5th to the 10th century. Various forms of evidence, including archeology, epigraphy, and iconography, demonstrate the enduring popularity of these characters within mainland Southeast Asian Buddhist traditions. This popularity spans from the end of the 1st millennium to the present. The focus of this work lies in the Pali texts, which have been largely overlooked in comparison to the well-preserved accounts in vernacular languages. The study partially aims to address this gap by presenting a critical edition and new translation of a Pali text centered around the parinibbāna (final demise) of one of the most esteemed disciples, Mahākassapa.

К вопросу о внешнеполитической деятельности буддистов СССР в контексте вероисповедной политики советского государства (1950–1970-е гг.)

Introduction. At present, when there is an intensification of cultural exchanges, political and economic contacts between Russia and Asian countries, it may be useful to study the experience of the history of relations between Buddhist organizations of different countries in international non-governmental organizations in the post-war decades. The purpose is to study some details of the international activities of the Buddhist clergy in the 1950s–1970s, namely: the features of interaction between Soviet state bodies and the Central Spiritual Administration of Buddhists and some aspects of the history of the participation of Soviet Buddhists in international non-governmental organizations. Materials. The main sources of the article were materials of the State Archive of the Russian Federation, as well as other archives of the country. A number of archival documents are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time. Conclusions. The institutionalization of Buddhism was carried out under the full control of the Soviet state, but at the same time it contributed to its development and spread, albeit in a limited form in various regions of the country. The direct foreign policy activity of Soviet Buddhists, in the conditions of the Cold War, was subordinated to the guidelines of the party, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the relevant competent departments. The Buddhists of the USSR were the agents of state policy in the international arena in the East. Since 1970, after the formation, on the initiative of the Soviet government, of the international organization “Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace”, Mongolia has become a key Buddhist diplomatic partner of the USSR. In the context of the formation of a “new world order,” people’s Buddhist diplomacy today can become one of the main actors in international relations.

The Hangzhou Region and the Spread of East Asian Buddhism

The story of East Asian Buddhism is a complex tapestry woven through centuries of cultural exchange, religious development, and scholarly interpretations [...]

Beyond the Buddhist heartland: Magadha’s Himalayan and trans-Himalayan networks (fifth to fifteenth century CE)

The Buddhist landscape of ancient Magadha, modern south Bihar in eastern India, constituted the religion’s heartland because the Buddha had lived and taught here for a substantial period of time in the sixth century BCE. Within a few centuries after the Buddha’s death, Magadha started developing strong trans-regional connections, attracting pilgrims from within and beyond the subcontinent to the many shrines and monasteries that came to define the region. While Magadha’s robust translocal networks have been well established, a long-term history of its interface with the Himalayan and trans-Himalayan regions in the premodern period has yet to be charted. In this paper, I explore Magadha’s connections with parts of Nepal, Tibet and China in the course of a millennium (fifth to fifteenth century CE), using a combination of texts, inscriptions, sculptures and other artefacts. Within Magadha, I focus on Mahābodhi, the place of the Buddha’s enlightenment, and on Nālandā, the site of a renowned mega-monastery (mahāvihāra), since they had the most enduring transcultural links. Such an exercise highlights the evolving character of the Buddhist heartland and the perception of it in the Asian Buddhist world. It also demonstrates how cross-cultural influences contributed to shaping Buddhist practices both within and beyond the heartland.

<i>Science and Development in Thai and South Asian Buddhism</i>, by David L. Gosling

Science and Development in Thai and South Asian Buddhism, by David L. Gosling. Routledge, 2020. 308pp. Hb £130, Pb 36,99. ISBN-13: 97800320846023.

Doctrinal Engagements and Disengagements: Yongming Yanshou and His Legacies

Abstract This paper looks at the vexed relationship of doctrine, or teaching (C. jiao/K. kyo/J. kyō 教) in the three kindred traditions subsumed under the rubric of the Sino-East Asian graph 禪, known through their distinctive pronunciations in modern languages as Chan, Sŏn, and Zen. While the stipulation of these traditions as ‘a special/separate transmission outside the teachings’; (jiaowai biechuan 教外別傳) presumes independence from Mahayana doctrinal teachings, the reality, as we know, was much more complicated. In this paper, I use Yongming Yanshou 永明延壽 (904–975/6), one of the most prominent Chan figures to promote doctrinal engagement, as a barometer to look at how doctrinal engagements and disengagements are regarded throughout each tradition. Perspectives on Yanshou, a figure at once revered and marginalized, unlock key features of each of these three interconnected traditions, what they share and how they disagree. Fundamentally, perspectives on doctrinal engagements and disengagements are rooted in seminal Chan disputes over the nature and value of Buddhist teaching, and Yanshou is a conduit for these disputes. Given the theme of the conference, ‘How Zen Became Chan’; I also look at the discrepancies these disputes reveal between modern Rinzai Zen orthodoxy’s defining of Zen in the modern world and the practice of Chan in China and Sŏn in Korea. The options that these discrepancies reveal are indicative of the relevance of doctrinal entanglements and disentanglements to the contemporary Chan, Sŏn, and Zen worlds.

East Asian Buddhism and Korea’s Transnational Interactions and Influences

No one can dispute the significant influence of Sinitic Buddhism in East Asia, but Korean Buddhists were also unquestionably close to the center of the development of different schools of Buddhism in mainland China, particularly in the Jiangnan region, which had historically drawn monks from the peninsula. This article will briefly cover the historical transnational Buddhist interactions between Korea and China, with an emphasis on doctrinal Buddhism, the significance of Ŭisang and Ǔich’ǒn, and the influence of Hangzhou’s Buddhist intellectual advancements. Even though the article’s main focus is on doctrinal contacts, we will also briefly discuss Chan Buddhism in China and how it influenced the texts and techniques of the Korean Sŏn (Zen) monk Chinul (1158–1210), who made an effort to integrate the doctrinal and meditational traditions, as did Ǔich’ǒn. This process of idea-cross-fertilization led to the Tripitaka Koreana, the largest collection of Buddhist texts in East Asia, created by Buddhists during the Koryŏ dynasty (918–1392), which is discussed below. This will aid in our understanding of these transnational exchanges and highlight the fact that Koreans were not only absorbing new ideas as they emerged in China, but they were also influencing them.

The East Asian Mahāyāna Teaching of the One Mind and Its Implications in a Polarized World

This paper addresses the problem of polarization, which is considered one of the most pressing issues facing humanity, from the perspective of Mahāyāna Buddhism, specifically, the East Asian Buddhist teaching of the One Mind. The teaching is outlined in the Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith (Dasheng qixin lun), a significant text in East Asian Buddhism. The paper suggests that the One Mind teaching can help counteract the deluded and polarized mind, which seems inevitable due to the human condition but gives rise to polarization. We have the potential to move from delusion to awakening, since these two mental states are not separate from each other. By awakening to the One Mind, which is the common foundation of equality and interconnectedness of all sentient beings, we can return to our original still and pure mind that is capable of seeing the reality beyond the discriminating, prioritizing, and repressing mind, which has no intrinsic self-nature. Thus, the solution to the problem of so-called “post-truth”, epistemic bubbles, and echo chambers lies in cultivating mindfulness and awareness of the mind as well as recognizing the fundamental interconnectedness of all beings through the One Mind.

The Transnational Experience of a Chinese Buddhist Master in the Asian Buddhist Network

Wuqian (1922–2010) was one of the most important modern Buddhist masters in the modern history of Sino-Indian Buddhist relations. In his early years, he studied all the major schools of the Buddhist tradition, focusing on Yogācāra philosophy, probably due to Xuanzang’s influence and in alignment with contemporary Buddhist trends. Furthermore, he became one of the few masters from the Central Plains who received systematic training in Tibetan Buddhist tantric rituals. He went to India in the middle of the 20th century. He dedicated his life to the revival of Buddhist thought in India, especially promoting Chinese Buddhism in Calcutta by establishing Buddhist institutions, managing Buddhist sites, organizing Buddhist activities, and building the Xuanzang Temple. In his later years, he devoted himself to facilitating mutual Buddhist exchanges and monastic visits between Buddhist organizations in mainland China, Taiwan, and India. In 1998, he presented two Buddhist relics to the Daci’en Temple in Xi’an. At the beginning of the 21st century, he established the Institute of Buddhist Studies at Xuanzang Temple in Calcutta. He organized the translation of many important Buddhist treatises, again reflecting his intention of following the spirit of Xuanzang to contribute to Chinese Buddhism. His transnational journey manifested that there was an active Asian Buddhist network during the Cold War era, despite various difficulties.

East Asian Buddhism's Two Ways of Accepting the Problem of ‘Convergence of Opposites’ of Laozi and Zhuangzi Thought: Awareness of linguistic Relativity or Assumption of An Unspeakable Unitary Entity

East Asian Buddhism's Two Ways of Accepting the Problem of ‘Convergence of Opposites’ of Laozi and Zhuangzi Thought: Awareness of linguistic Relativity or Assumption of An Unspeakable Unitary Entity

The Influence of Wŏnhyo’s Understanding of “Shenjie” 神解 on the Chinese Commentaries on the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna

This study aims to reveal the influence of Wŏnhyo’s Kisillon so (Wŏnhyoso) on Chinese commentaries on the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna (AFM), which is regarded as important in East Asian Buddhism. Previous studies focused only on the influence on Fazang’s Qixinlun shu (Fazangshu), but it should be noted that the Wŏnhyoso also had an effect on the understanding of the AFM in China. First, by comparing the usage of “shenjie” in the Fazangshu and in the Wŏnhyoso, one can identify Wŏnhyoso’s unique interpretation. The Wŏnhyoso defines it as “mystical understanding as the nature of One Mind in the aspect of thusness and the nature of the mind of original enlightenment in the aspect of arising and ceasing”, whereas the Fazangshu defines “shenjie” as “an excellent comprehension”. Next, examining the usage of “shenjie” of the Wŏnhyoso in the later commentaries on the AFM after Fazang, such as the Shilun, the Zanxuanshu, the Puguanji, the Zongmishu, the Bixueji, the Shulue, and the Huiyue, has confirmed the influence of the Wŏnhyoso in Chinese Buddhism. In addition, the relationships between Chinese commentaries on the AFM were also clarified based on the commentaries’ acceptance of “shenjie”.

Protocols of Conversion: Indigenous Gods and Eminent Monks in East Asian Buddhism

This article examines the relationships between eminent monks and local gods in East Asian Buddhism, problematizing the ill-defined and much-employed concept of “protector deity of the dharma” (Skt. dharmapāla). By carefully examining various stories of the interactions between eminent monks and various gods found mostly in the biographies of eminent monks in Buddhist literature, we find three recognizable patterns when an indigenous god transforms into a “Buddhist” god. This study illustrates the ways in which local gods obtain Buddhist identities and deciphers how the “conversion” becomes possible via the spiritual power of the eminent monks, whose drive from their moral strength serves as the foundation of their spiritual essence. In this long process of localization of the dharma, the most effective narratives link the idea of the dharmapāla with the virtue of eminent monks. Hence, these narratives in GSZ, XGSZ, and Samugykusa contain colorful examples of taming local gods and malicious spirits with their mental power and moral virtue, finding a place for those gods to fit into the new Buddhist order. This study provides insights into the complex interactions between different religious traditions and sheds light on the ways in which religious ideas and practices are adapted and transformed in new cultural contexts.