BT Type Research Articles

Profile Clinico Patological of Leprosy at Prof. Dr. I. G. N. G. Ngoerah Central Hospital Denpasar During 2017 – 2022

Introduction: Leprosy is a chronic disease caused by Mycobacterium Leprae. According to the WHO, leprosy is one of the communicable diseases that affect the skin, peripheral nerves, and upper mucosa, and it can cause physical disabilities, if not properly handled. This study aims to determine the clinical and pathological profile of leprosy at Prof. dr. I. G. N. G. Ngoerah Central Hospital Denpasar, in 2017 - 2022. Metods: The study used a descriptive research design with total sampling from secondary data obtained from the Pathology Anatomy Laboratory of Prof. dr. I. G. N. G. Ngoerah Central Hospital Denpasar. The sample collected during the study period included 63 samples of patients diagnosed with leprosy, which were then processed using SPSS software version 26. Result: The highest number of cases was found in patients age group of 19-64 years, accounting for 55 cases (87.3%), predominantly in male patients with 36 cases (57.1%). The most common main complaint was red patches, with 43 cases (72.8%) presenting erythematous skin lesions, specifically plaques, in 24 cases (42.8%). Conclusion: Based on classification, leprosy was more frequently grouped into two classifications: WHO classification and Ridley Jopling classification. According to the WHO classification, the majority of patients were found to have the PB type, accounting for 35 cases (55.6%), while based on the Ridley Jopling classification, the BT type was more prevalent, with 21 cases (33.3%). This study is beneficial as it provides insights into the clinical and pathological profile of leprosy. Further analytical research is needed to explore the relationships between various variables

Hybridization of Two Species of Japanese Toads, Bufo torrenticola and Bufo japonicus formosus, in the Central Part of Japan.

Interspecific hybridization between two species of Japanese toads, Bufo torrenticola (Bt) and Bufo japonicus formosus (Bjf), was not thought to have occurred due to the differences in their spawning habitats, although their hybridization was reported by previous research in a limited area. Such hybridization could have pivotal effects, such as genetic admixture, on Bt, which has a limited distribution and habitat. In this study, to clarify the details of hybridization, a total of 192 individuals were collected from multiple parapatric regions and an only Bjf allopatric region and analyzed based on morphology, mtDNA sequences, and nuclear DNA microsatellite loci. Each individual was identified based on morphological type and mtDNA lineage, and two mismatched combinations, Bt or an intermediate morphological type and the Bjf mtDNA lineage, were detected. In particular, the combination of Bt type and Bjf lineage was dominant in parapatric regions, and it was considered that asymmetric hybridization in which Bjf became a matriline had occurred. In addition, a Bayesian clustering method based on the microsatellite loci was conducted to detect a genetic admixture of the two toad species. Individuals representing a combination of the Bt type and Bjf lineage in the parapatric regions were largely assigned to the Bt cluster or equally to both clusters. These results indicate that backcross with Bt has been repeated, and therefore the traits of Bt might be maintained in this study.

Pattern of Leprosy: A Histomorphological Study with Clinical Correlation in Ajmer District

Background:
 Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) still continues to be an important public health problem. The present study was carried to correlate histological diagnosis of skin biopsies of untreated leprosy cases with clinical diagnosis using Ridley- Jopling classification.
 Material and Methods:
 124 skin biopsies of untreated leprosy cases over a period of 6 years were included. Paraffin sections of biopsies were stained with Haematoxylin & Eosin, Ziehl- Neelsen’s & Fite stains examined and classified histopathologically according to Ridley- Jopling scale and then correlated with clinical diagnosis.
 
 Results:
 Prevalence rate of leprosy in Ajmer district is 0.16 per 10,000 population per annum. Among the 124 biopsies, most cases were of indeterminate type (39.51%), followed by LL type (17.74%), TT type (16.93%), BT type (10.48%), BL type (07.25%), BB type (05.64%), histioid type (2.41%). Most commonly the patients were affected in 4th decade of life. Male and female ratio was 2.26:1. Most common clinical presentation was anesthesia.
 
 Conclusion:
 Correlation of clinical and histopathological features along with bacteriological index appears more useful for accurate typing of leprosy than considering any of the single parameters alone. This helps the clinician for better care and management of the patients.

The effect of Bt crops on soil invertebrates: a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis.

The ongoing debate about the ecological effects of Bt-crops calls for thorough reviews about the impact on soil biodiversity and their ecosystem services. Transgenic Bt-crops have been genetically modified by inserting a Bacillus thuriengensis gene so the plant expresses a Cry toxin aimed for insect crop pests. Non-target soil invertebrates are particularly recognized for their contribution to plant nutrient availability and turnover of organic matter and it is therefore relevant to protect these invertebrate taxa. A number of studies have compared the population abundance and biomass of soil invertebrates in agricultural fields planted with genetically modified Bt crops and their conventional counterparts. Here, were review and analyze a selection of studies on Protista, nematodes, Collembola, mites, enchytraeids, and earthworms systematically to empower the evidence for asking the question whether population abundances and biomasses of soil invertebrates are changed by Bt crops compared to conventional crops. 6110 titles were captured, of which 38 studies passed our inclusion criteria, and a final number of 22 publications were subject to data extraction. A database with 2046 records was compiled covering 36 locations and the Bt types Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry3Bb1 and Cry3Aa. Comparative effect sizes in terms of Hedges' g were calculated irrespectively of statistical significance of effects of the source studies. Cry effects on populations were compared across the studies in a meta-analysis employing a hierarchical Bayesian approach of weighted data according to the level of replication. The temporal development of effect sizes was modelled, thereby taking into account the variable duration of the field experiments. There was considerable variation among soil invertebrate orders, but the sample size was insufficient and the sample heterogeneity too large to draw any credible conclusions on the effect of Cry at the order level. However, across orders there was no significant effect of Cry on soil invertebrates.

Botulinum toxin type D blocks autonomic cholinergic synapses in humans: discussion of a potential therapeutic use

Based on epidemiological data it was believed that botulinumtoxin type D (BT-D) may not block human cholinergic synapses. We wanted to investigate BT-D's effect on the autonomic cholinergic synapse in humans. For this, we compared in four volunteers intraindividually the hypohidrotic effect of intradermal BT-D and BT-A in Minor's iodine starch sweat test. Altogether, we studied BT-D in doses of 4, 8, 16 and 32MU and BT-A in doses of 2, 4, 8 and 16MU at weekly intervals throughout a period of 13weeks. All BT doses were diluted in 0.2ml 0.9% NaCl/H2O. Overall 704 data points were collected. Combined over all four subjects and all four doses BT-D's hypohidrotic effect intensity was half of BT-A's. BT-D's effect peaked around 5weeks, BT-A's around 7weeks. BT-D's effect duration was around 12weeks, of BT-A's was around 14weeks. For both BT types the hypohidrotic effect was dose dependent. BT-D, when injected intradermally, can block autonomic cholinergic synapses in humans. Compared to BT-A, BT-D's effect intensity was half and its effect duration was some 2weeks shorter. With its weaker and shorter effect BT-D does not seem to promise therapeutic effects superior to BT-A.

Development and prospect of hybrid <italic>japonica</italic> rice in China

The extension of hybrid japonica rice is of great significance to increase rice production and ensure grain security in China. The low productivity of parental materials and the narrow genetic distance between parents resulted in the insufficient superiority of hybrid japonica rice in China, and the yield of japonica rice cannot be improved significantly compared with that of conventional japonica rice. The low yield of hybrid seed production and few super japonica hybrid combinations directly limited the widely extension of hybrid japonica rice. In this paper, the history of development of japonica hybrid rice breeding in China was reviewed, including the discovery and utilization of sterile lines such as Dian type and BT type, as well as the breeding of hybrid japonica restorer lines (C57 and C418) with high combining ability via “ indica - japonica bridge” method. In addition, the key technology advances of increasing hybrid seed production of japonica rice and utilization of heterosis were summarized as following: (1) The increase of stigma exsertion rate and enhancement of stigma viability lead to high probability of successful fertilization, thus resulting in the increase of hybrid rice seed production. Significant correlations were showed between stigma exsertion rate and the ratio of floret length and width, stigma exsertion rate and column length, stigma exsertion rate and angle. Great progresses on stigma exsertion have been achieved from the studies on the genetic and molecular level (i.e marker-assisted selection). (2) To further increase the utilization of heterosis in hybrid japonica rice, the studies on heterotic groups and patterns for making hybrid combinations from the selection of superior parents in japonica rice were conducted. Based on the different heterotic groups of parental lines of japonica rice, several models for making hybrid combinations were proposed, including the model of heterosis complementation of indica and japonica rice, the model of the interactions of thermo-sensitive and photo-period-sensitive genes, and the model of grain structure complementation. These models emphasize comprehensive characteristics in rice breeding, including the utilization of indica - japonica intersubspecific heterosis, the applications of wide compatibility genes and restorer genes in rice, the anti-senility of leaves and roots, the applications of plant type such as large panicles and good grain-filling characteristics, and resistance for abiotic stress such as lodging resistance. Therefore, this study provides technical suggestions and strategies for further breeding and application of japonica hybrid rice.

A histopathological study and clinico histopathological correlation of single lesions in leprsoy

Background: Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium Leprae is an important public health concern. Single lesions in leprosy are commonly seen in TT, BT and indeterminate leprosy. Aim: The aim of the present study is to evaluate histopathological features of single lesions in different clinical types of leprosy and evaluate clinico histopathological correlation. Methods: Scalpel biopsies of single leprosy lesions from all 40 patients were done followed by staining of slides with Haemotoxilin and Eosin stains. A thorough study of histopathological features of slides was done followed clinico- histopathological correlation. Results: There were 7 cases of indeterminate leprosy, 27 cases of BT type and 6 cases of TT type clinically. There were clinico- histopathological correlations in 32.5% of the total cases. More clinico histopathological correlation was seen among TT type and least correlation was seen among BT type. Conclusion: There is clinico histopatholgical correlation in 32.5% of the total cases. More correlation is seen TT type of leprosy than in BT type of leprosy in single lesions.

TO THE ISSUE OF WASTE WATERS PURIFICATION IN WEST SIBERIA OIL AND GAS FIELD FACILITIES

The article considers the problems of anthropogenic environmental pollution in the oil and gas fields in West Siberia. Taking into account the experience of wells drilling and statistical reports data there was drawn a map of average many-years pollution of open water bodies in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug. It is shown that the major pollution is related with drilling wastes in the process of increasing the volumes of drilling and oil and gas production. To reduce the pollution it is offered to use modular plants for treatment of waste waters of BT and BTF type. These plants use will permit to discharge the treated waste waters into the water bodies of fishery purpose.

Existence of lysogenic bacteriophages in Bacillus thuringiensis type strains

We screened the existence of bacteriophages in 67 Bacillus thuringiensis type strains by phage DNA extraction and PCR using phage terminase small subunit (TerS)-specific primers to the supernatants and the precipitated pellets of Bt cultures, and by transmission electron microscopy. The various bacteriophages were observed from the supernatants of 22 type strains. Ten type strains showed the extracted phage DNAs and the amplified fragment by TerS PCR but 12 type strains showed only the phage DNAs. Their morphological characteristic suggests that they belong to Family Siphoviridae which had a long tail and symmetrical head.

Male sterile lines for hybrid rice breeding

Experience with hybrid maize indicates the utility of diverse cytoplasms as a source of cytoplasmic male sterility. Crop heterogeneity is desirable for the sustainability of commercial hybrids. We studied the morphological and physiological characters of male sterile lines belonging to diverse cytoplasm. We studied eight male sterile lines belonging to wild abortive types (V20 3A, Zhengshan 97 A, BO A, Jin 23 A, and Zhi A), IDR or Indonesian paddy rice type (U1 A), dwarf abortive type (Xieqinzao A), and BT or japonica type (80-4 A) during the winter season of 1993-94 in a randomized block design with three replications. Each line was planted in a single row, with a spacing of 20x20 cm. The crop was maintained as per recommended practices.

Chemical and boron isotopic composition of tourmaline in the Xiangshan volcanic–intrusive complex, Southeast China: Evidence for boron mobilization and infiltration during magmatic–hydrothermal processes

Three types of tourmaline occurrences have been distinguished in the Xiangshan volcanic–intrusive complex, SE China: (1) tourmaline–quartz nodules (NT type) in the porphyroclastic rhyolitic lava, (2) tourmalinite or tourmaline-rich quartzite (TT type) as xenoliths in the porphyroclastic rhyolitic lava; and (3) tourmaline-rich biotite schist (BT type) which also occurs as xenoliths in the porphyroclastic rhyolitic lava. Detailed petrographic study suggests that all three types of tourmaline are of magmatic–hydrothermal origin. The occurrence of tourmaline in the latter two types (TT and BT) reflects strong boron mobilization and infiltration from the magma into the meta-sedimentary xenoliths during interaction between the magmatic–hydrothermal fluids and the xenoliths. This interpretation is supported by the similar chemical compositions of tourmaline in all three types, although small differences exist between the BT and NT type tourmalines, i.e., the BT type tourmaline is slightly enriched in Ca and Mg, while the NT type tourmaline is slightly enriched in Na and Fe. The boron isotope analyses of tourmaline by both bulk TIMS and in-situ LA–MC–ICP-MS methods reveal that all three tourmaline types show similar δ11B values, with a narrow range between −14 and −11‰, indicating a single boron source. The formation of NT type tourmaline was most likely triggered by liquid immiscibility during highly evolved magmatic differentiation, and tourmaline crystallization typically occurred during the magmatic stage transitional from latter solidus to early subsolidus crystallization.

ハンセン病夫婦間感染例 ─症例報告とレビュー

The authors reported a conjugal leprosy infection observed in Japan. The husband, index case, first noticed sensory disturbance at the lower right leg in his forties. He developed edematous swelling with redness of the right hand and forearm at the age of 72 (1989), and then developed multiple erythema and hypesthesia at the extremities. He was diagnosed as BL type leprosy (reactional stage) and treated with multi-drug therapy. His 71-year-old wife developed a few erythema at the right forearm in 1993. She was classified as BT type. The duration of their marriage life was over forty years. The couple did not have consanguinity. No other leprosy patients were found in their lineage. From their clinical courses the authors concluded that the husband infected his wife. According to Japanese literatures, the frequency of conjugal leprosy among new patients in Japan was approximately 1%. There were worldwide observations that the husband often infected the wife, and mostly the index case was multibacillary and the secondary case paucibacillary. The authors reviewed definition and frequency of conjugal leprosy, factors in conjugal infection and leprosy infection among the adults.

Horizontal transfers of Mariner transposons between mammals and insects

BackgroundActive transposable elements (TEs) can be passed between genomes of different species by horizontal transfer (HT). This may help them to avoid vertical extinction due to elimination by natural selection or silencing. HT is relatively frequent within eukaryotic taxa, but rare between distant species.FindingsClosely related Mariner-type DNA transposon families, collectively named as Mariner-1_Tbel families, are present in the genomes of two ants and two mammalian genomes. Consensus sequences of the four families show pairwise identities greater than 95%. In addition, mammalian Mariner1_BT family shows a close evolutionary relationship with some insect Mariner families. Mammalian Mariner1_BT type sequences are present only in species from three groups including ruminants, tooth whales (Odontoceti), and New World leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae).ConclusionsHorizontal transfer accounts for the presence of Mariner_Tbel and Mariner1_BT families in mammals. Mariner_Tbel family was introduced into hedgehog and tree shrew genomes approximately 100 to 69 million years ago (MYA). Most likely, these TE families were transferred from insects to mammals, but details of the transfer remain unknown.

The potential of beneficial microorganisms in agricultural systems

The potential of beneficial microorganisms in agricultural systems

Serum cytokine profile in leprosy and its correlation with clinico-histopathological profile

To analyse the serum levels of cytokines in leprosy patients, to correlate them with clinico-histopathological profile, and to study the effect of standard multidrug therapy on serum cytokine levels. Serum immunoassays of TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, IL-1 beta and IL-10 were performed by ELISA in 61 newly diagnosed cases of leprosy before starting therapy and during reactional episodes. Of these, cytokine assays could be performed in 17 cases after completion of therapy. Levels of all the studied cytokines were significantly raised in cases compared to controls (P < 0.05). Levels of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma were significantly raised in paucibacillary cases whereas all the studied cytokines were raised in multibacillary cases with rise in IL-1 beta and IL-10 being statistically significant (P < 0.001). No significant difference was however noted between TT and BT type; and BB, BL and LL types. All the studied cytokines were raised in reactional cases as compared to non-reactional cases. Comparing Type 2 reaction (T2R) and Type 1 reaction (T1R) cases, levels of IFN-gamma, IL-1 beta and IL-10 were higher in T2R cases but only IL-10 was found to be statistically significant (P = 0.05) while TNF-alpha was higher in T1R cases. Post therapy serum levels of all the studied cytokines were significantly lower than pretherapy levels (P < 0.05) and were comparable to controls. Among the paucibacillary cases, levels of all the cytokines were seen to decrease after 6 months of standard multidrug therapy. In the multibacillary cases, mean levels of the cytokines were found to decrease after 1 year of therapy except IFN-gamma. Serum cytokine estimation may have a significant role in classifying various forms of leprosy and can be used to monitor therapy.

Utilization of weedy rice for development of japonica hybrid rice ( Oryza sativa L.)

Two representative weedy rice lines, three typical japonica varieties and three typical indica varieties were used for 6 pairs of reciprocal crosses. The morphological traits of twelve F 1 hybrid lines, their parents and four elite cultivars were investigated for heterosis over mid-parent (HM), over parent (HP) and competitive heterosis (CH) analysis. Traits detected in weedy rice lines seemed larger than those in cultivars and excellent heterosis was produced in weedy rice crossing with japonica rice. Although weedy rice kept closer relationships with japonica rice compared to indica rice. But the heterosis of reciprocal crosses between weedy rice and japonica was closed to those of crosses between indica rice and japonica rice. In six of one hundred and eighteen weedy rice lines, the fertility restore gene for BT type cytoplasmic male sterility (BT-CMS) were detected. Weedy rice was very valuable germplasm resources with the abundant polymorphism. Meanwhile, the disadvantage, lodging, shattering and incompact plant type, should be modified by hybridization, backcross and multiple cross with japonica rice. Although it is difficult to use weedy rice directly, weedy rice may be available to breed both male sterile line and restorer line through improvement, developing japonica hybrid rice.

Indirect Lightning-Induced Voltages Along a Railway Catenary-Track Multiconductor Transmission-Line System With Lumped Components

Transients caused by field-to-wire coupling due to lightning strikes in the vicinity of multiconductor transmission lines (TL) have been widely studied. In those studies, the lines represent single overhead lines, power lines, and the like with lumped loads/devices at line terminations. In electrified railway power systems, series or shunt devices, such as transformers, converters, switchgear, and signal equipments, are distributed along the TL system. In this paper, the indirect lightning effects on a typical railway catenary-track multiconductor TL system with lumped components, namely, booster and auto transformers (BT and AT systems), and track circuits, are studied. It is found that the induced voltage wave shapes and amplitudes at any point along the line are dominated by BT or AT system type, and that the voltages appearing across AT windings are higher than for the corresponding BT windings. However, the induced voltages across the track circuits are less dependent on system type and most affected by the introduction of components.

Comparative Study on Breeding Utilization Characteristics of the Isonuclear Alloplasmic &lt;I&gt;Japonica&lt;/I&gt; CMS Lines Liuqianxin A with Four Different Cytoplasm Sources

A set of isonuclear alloplasmic japonica CMS lines Liuqianxin A,constructed with four different cytoplasm sources from Hainan Male Sterile Wild Rice (WA type),Hainan Red Awned Wild Rice (HL type),Hunan Chaling Wild Rice (CL type),and India Chinsurah Boro II (BT type),respectively,together with their maintainer line Liuqianxin B,were applied to study their male sterile stability,flowering habits,outcrossing rate,and restorable ability.The results showed:(1) Most pollen granules of BT,HL and CL Liuqianxin A were mainly stained-abortion,while those of WA Liuqianxin A were mainly typical-abortion.Selfed seed-setting rate of BT Liuqianxin A was 0.60%,which would cause application risk in agricultural production.There were no selfed seeds in HL and CL Liuqianxin A,indicating that sterility of them was better than that of BT type.(2) The length of 1st internode to the top was affected by the degree of abortive pollen,which influenced the plant height and the panicle exsertion (i.e.the length of panicle-neck above the sheath of flag leaf).Namely the more serious abortive degree,the shorter panicle exsertion.Therefore,panicle was enclosed within the sheath of the flag leaf in WA Liuqianxin A,not in BT,HL,and CL Liuqianxin A.(3) The flowering habits of WA Liuqianxin A presented as sporadic flowering,distinctly lagged flowering time and stretched flowering duration,and were the worst in the four type CMS lines,thus its outcrossing rate was lower.Flowering habits and outcrossing rate between HL,CL CMS lines and BT CMS lines were not significantly different.However it was better in HL,CL CMS lines than in WA CMS lines.(4) BT Liuqianxin A showed the best restorable characteristic,HL was a little worse than BT,WA was the worst.And japonica restorers for HL or CL CMS lines could be selected from the japonica restorers for BT CMS lines.HL,CL CMS lines balanced above contradictions well,so an idea of substituting HL,CL CMS lines partly for BT type was put forward,it can be used to solve the problems of single type sterile cytoplasm in current Japonica hybrid rice and fertility not stable in BT CMS lines.

Comparison of Characteristics for Breeding Utilization of Isonuclear Alloplasmic Liuqianxin A with Four Cytoplasm Sources

The BT type of cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) line plays a predominant role in japonica hybrid rice ( Oryza sativa L.). Incomplete sterility of the CMS line is one of the major restraints in heterosis utilization of japonica hybrid rice. This study aimed at comparing a set of isonuclear alloplasmic sterile lines that might be used in japonica hybrid rice breeding. Four Liuqianxin-based isonuclear CMS lines in WA, HL, BT, and CL cytoplasmic backgrounds were crossed with Liuqianxin B line for evaluating the male sterile stability, flowering habits, outcrossing rate, and restorable ability. The sterility was characterized as stained abortion in most pollen granules of the BT-, HL-, and CL-type Liuqianxin A and typical abortion in most pollen granules of WA-type Liuqianxin A. The selfing rate of the BT-type Liuqianxin A was 0.60%, which might cause a risk in producing seed of hybrid rice. However, no selfing spikelets were obtained in the HL- and CL-type Liuqianxin A. Length of the first internode to the top and plant height were associated with the abortion degree of pollens, and the severer abortion led to shorter panicle neck protruding from the flag leaf sheath. As a result, panicles were enclosed by flag leaf sheath in WA-type Liuqianxin A; but such a characteristic was not found in other types of Liuqianxin A. In the 4 types of Liuqianxin A, the WA type had the lowest outcrossing rate due to sporadic flowering, distinctly laggard flowering time, and stretched flowering duration. The flowering habits and outcrossing rate were similar in the HL- and CL-type Liuqianxin A, which had no significant differences to the BT type. The restorable characteristic was the best in BT-type Liuqianxin A, followed by the HL and CL types, and the worst in the WA type. The HL- and CL-type CMS lines are proposed to replace the BT-type CMS line in japonica hybrid rice breeding because they have advantages on balancing the sterility, flowering habits, and restorable characteristic. Furthermore, the HL- and CL-type japonica restorers can be selected from the BT-type restorers.

Clinical use of non-a botulinum toxins: botulinum toxin type B

Botulinum neurotoxin type B (BT, BT-B) has been used as NeuroBloc/MyoBloc since 1999 for treatment of cervical dystonia, hyperhidrosis, spastic conditions, cerebral palsy, hemifacial spasm, bladder dysfunction, spasmodic dysphonia, sialorrhoea, anal fissures, piriformis syndrome, various pain conditions and cosmetic applications. Generally, its therapeutic effects are comparable to BT type A (BT-A). The adverse effect profiles of BT-B and BT-A, however, differ considerably. BT-B has been found to produce more regional as well as systemic anticholinergic adverse effects, such as dryness of mouth, accommodation difficulties, conjunctival irritation, reduced sweating, dysphagia, heartburn, constipation, bladder voiding difficulties and dryness of nasal mucosa. In BT-B the relationship between autonomic and motor effects known from BT-A is substantially shifted towards autonomic effects. BT-B, therefore, should be used carefully in patients with autonomic disorders and in patients with concomitant anticholinergic therapy. If NeuroBloc/MyoBloc is used to treat cervical dystonia patients with antibody-induced failure of BT-A therapy, 86% of those will develop complete secondary therapy failure after five applications. If NeuroBloc/MyoBloc used to treat cervical dystonia patients without prior exposure to BT, 44% of those will develop complete secondary therapy failure after nine applications. NeuroBloc/MyoBloc, therefore, is associated with substantial antigenicity problems originating from a particular low specific biological potency. Systemic anticholinergic adverse effects and high antigenicity limits the clinical use of NeuroBloc/MyoBloc considerably.