Brown Feathers Research Articles

Effect of polymorphisms in the 5’-flanking sequence of MC1R on feather color in Taihang chickens

MC1R plays an important role in the regulation of the formation, transfer, and deposition of melanin in animals and is important for determining coat color. Many studies have reported on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the coding sequence of MC1R. However, few studies have investigated the polymorphisms in the 5’-flanking sequence of MC1R. In this study, we sequenced 2000 bp of the 5’-flanking sequence of MC1R in 300 Taihang chickens with brown feathers (MTH) and 300 Taihang chickens with black feathers (HTH). The sequencing results showed that 4 SNPs (MC1R g.18838722 G > C, g.18838624 T > C, g.18838694 G > A, and g.18838624 C > T) were located in the 5’-flanking sequence of MC1R between the MTH and HTH groups. Association analysis showed that there was a significant correlation between the 4 SNPs and feather color in Taihang chickens. The correlation between MC1R g.18838624 T >C and feather color of Taihang chicken was 100%, of which the CC (E1) genotype is MTH and the TT (E2) genotype is HTH. Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between MC1R g.18838624 T > C and egg production at 302 d. E1 (184.14 ± 0.674) was significantly higher than that in E2 (181.75 ± 0.577) (P < 0.05). Luciferase reporter assays were used to detect the transcriptional activity of MC1R with different SNP genotypes. The results showed that the luciferase activity of E2 was significantly higher than that of E1 (P < 0.05). In addition, transcription factor-binding site predictions showed that E2 creates a new binding site for ZEB1. RT‒qPCR results revealed that the expression of MC1R in E2 was significantly lower than that in E1 (P < 0.05), and the expression of ZEB1 in E2 was significantly higher than that in E1 (P < 0.05). Overexpression and shRNA experiments demonstrated that ZEB1 regulates the expression of MC1R in DF1 cells. ZEB1 has a negative regulatory effect on the transcriptional activity of MC1R; it inhibits the expression of MC1R and affects the feather color of Taihang chickens. This study provides new insight into the molecular mechanism of feather color formation and the transcriptional regulation of MC1R in Taihang chickens.

Penggunaan jamu herbal pada ayam leghorn umur 26 bulan terhadap kualitas protein, lemak dan kolesterol telur

Laying hens raised in Merauke are generally medium-type leghorns with their characteristic brown feathers, two-year-old laying hens have decreased egg production because the chickens have entered the rejected period. Chicken is said to be rejected because the chicken has experienced a molting period twice and also has a period of decreased egg production. Efforts to improve the quality of production as well as eggs from medium type chicken rejects include giving herbal medicine. Improving the quality of production and the quality of eggs can not be separated from the condition of the chicken reproductive organs, herbal plants function to increase the fertility of the reproductive organs because they contain carotene and tocopherol which function to increase the fertility of the reproductive organs of one type of plant such as red fruit (Pandanus conoideus). The purpose of this study was to determine the ability of herbal medicine to improve the quality of egg protein, fat and cholesterol in laying hens. This research method was conducted experimentally using 26-month-old laying hens as many as 36 heads, with normal feeding and drinking provision divided into 4 treatments and 3 replications, so there were 12 units, each unit consisting of 3 chickens. Data were analyzed anovaally and continued with duncan test, calculations using SPSS 21 software. The results showed that the use of herbal herbal medicine in drinking water for fat and cholesterol protein had decreased but was not significant. The conclusion of this research is the supplementation of herbal herbal medicine in laying hens of medium type rejects does not affect the quality of eggs, namely protein, fat and cholesterol. The content of quality protein, fat and cholesterol is still in normal levels.

Efektifitas ekstrak daun mayana (solenostemon scutellarioides. L) terhadap uji fisik organoleptik daging babi

Laying hens raised in Merauke are generally medium-type leghorns with their characteristic brown feathers, two-year-old laying hens have decreased egg production because the chickens have entered the rejected period. Chicken is said to be rejected because the chicken has experienced a molting period twice and also has a period of decreased egg production. Efforts to improve the quality of production as well as eggs from medium type chicken rejects include giving herbal medicine. Improving the quality of production and the quality of eggs can not be separated from the condition of the chicken reproductive organs, herbal plants function to increase the fertility of the reproductive organs because they contain carotene and tocopherol which function to increase the fertility of the reproductive organs of one type of plant such as red fruit (Pandanus conoideus). The purpose of this study was to determine the ability of herbal medicine to improve the quality of egg protein, fat and cholesterol in laying hens. This research method was conducted experimentally using 26-month-old laying hens as many as 36 heads, with normal feeding and drinking provision divided into 4 treatments and 3 replications, so there were 12 units, each unit consisting of 3 chickens. Data were analyzed anovaally and continued with duncan test, calculations using SPSS 21 software. The results showed that the use of herbal herbal medicine in drinking water for fat and cholesterol protein had decreased but was not significant. The conclusion of this research is the supplementation of herbal herbal medicine in laying hens of medium type rejects does not affect the quality of eggs, namely protein, fat and cholesterol. The content of quality protein, fat and cholesterol is still in normal levels.

Quantitation of eumelanin and pheomelanin markers in diverse biological samples by HPLC-UV-MS following solid-phase extraction

Eumelanin and pheomelanin are well known and common pigments found in nature. However, their complex polymer structure and high thermostability complicate their direct chemical identification. A widely used analytical method is indirect determination using HPLC with UV detection of both types of melanin by their most abundant oxidation products: pyrrole-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (PDCA), pyrrole-2,3,5-tricarboxylic acid (PTCA), thiazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid (TDCA), and thiazole-2,4,5-tricarboxylic acid (TTCA). An increasing interest in pigmentation in biological research led us to develop a highly sensitive and selective method to identify and quantify these melanin markers in diverse biological samples with complex matrices. By introducing solid-phase extraction (SPE, reversed-phase) following alkaline oxidation we could significantly decrease background signals while maintaining recoveries greater than 70%. Our HPLC-UV-MS method allows for confident peak identification via exact mass information in corresponding UV signals used for quantitation. In addition to synthetic melanin and Sepia officinalis ink as reference compounds eumelanin markers were detected in brown human hair and a brown bivalve shell (Mytilus edulis). Brown feathers from the common chicken (Gallus g. domesticus) yielded all four eumelanin and pheomelanin markers. The present method can be easily adapted for a wide range of future studies on biological samples with unknown melanin content.

Growth and slaughtering performance, carcase fleshiness and meat quality according to the plumage colour in Padovana male chickens slaughtered at 18 weeks of age

The aim of this trial was to investigate on the growth and meat quality of Padovana male chickens with different plumage varieties, chamois (PC - light brown feathers with white edge), silver (PS - white feathers with black edge), and their cross. The body weight of PC during the growth period was higher (p < .01) than PS, and it was 1.7 and 1.5 kg, respectively, at 126 d of age. At slaughter, PC showed higher weight of carcase (p < .05), breast and total fleshiness (breast, wings and legs) (p < .01), and thigh meat:bone ratio (p < .05). PS showed higher shanks weight on carcase weight (p < .01), Ilio tibialis a* value (p < .01), water losses (p < .01) and shear force (p < .05) in breast meat than PC. Crossing PC males to PS females gave birds with white (Cross-W) and silver (Cross-S) plumage (3:1 ratio, respectively). The offspring genotypes showed similar body weight, and almost all slaughtering, carcase and meat quality traits studied. Cross-W and Cross-S showed significantly higher final body weight, breast and leg weight, total fleshiness and thigh meat:bone ratio than PS. For the Padovana breed, the plumage colour can involve productive and slaughtering performance, and carcase and meat quality, throughout the growing period. At 18 weeks of age, the Padovana male chickens show body weight and carcase fleshiness similar to that of a hybrid laying hen belonging to a light strain.HighlightsPadovana is an historic Italian chicken breed with a slow growth rate; it is slaughtered broadly later than hybrid strains and it is important to know the age for achieving favourable slaughtering performance and good carcase quality.Padovana chicken breed has been selected in some plumage colours and the growth rate, slaughtering performance and carcase quality can significantly differ according to them.Crossing chickens with two different plumage colours can exert a positive heterosis effect on productive and carcase quality traits.

Maturation of Plumage in the Short-tailed Albatross &lt;i&gt;Phoebastria albatrus&lt;/i&gt; Based on Birds of Known Sex and Age on Torishima

To facilitate the accurate description of plumage of the Short-tailed Albatross Phoebastria albatrus, we classified plumage into eight components, based on photos taken at a breeding colony on Torishima, Izu Islands. Plumage components of 20 individuals just before fledging and 729 individuals of known sex and ranging in age from 2 to 26 years were scored. The plumage color became more whitish with age. The underbody plumage became white earlier than the upper body, whereas on the thigh, tibia and a posterior part of undertail coverts, dark brown feathers remained even in older age. The upper body turned white from the uppertail coverts towards the front, whereas dark brown feathers remained on the mantle, scapulars and nape, even in older age. The upperwing and underwing were often the same score. The progress of the score was earlier for males than for females. At every age from 3 to 18 years, the summed score of seven components (the underwing score was excluded) was significantly different between sexes, although older age males and females could be considered to have the same score. Individuals with a dark brown mantle, scapulars, rump and uppertail coverts were of age of 5 or less years and had not yet bred, except for a few females. Many individuals started breeding after they had a white part on the rump and uppertail coverts. Males reached final plumage pattern at the age of 8 to 15 years, while females reached final plumage pattern at the age of 11 to 20 years or older.

Reflectance Spectra of Peacock Feathers and the Turning Angles of Melanin Rods in Barbules.

I analyzed the association between the reflectance spectra and melanin rod arrangement in barbules of the eyespot of peacock feathers. The reflectance spectra from the yellow-green feather of the eyespot indicated double peaks of 430 and 540 nm. The maximum reflectance spectrum of the blue feather was 480 nm, and that of the dark blue feather was 420 nm. The reflectance spectra from brown feathers indicated double peaks of 490 and 610 nm. Transmission electron microscopic analysis confirmed that melanin rods were arranged fanwise in the outer layer toward the barbule tips. In addition, using polarized light microscope, I attempted to determine whether the turning angles of melanin rods in the barbules reflected different colors. The turning angle of the polarizing axis of the barbules was supported by that of the melanin rods, observed using transmission electron microscopic images. To compare the turning angle of melanin rods in the respective barbules, I calculated the opening width of the fanwise melanin rods by dividing the width of the barbules by the turning angle of the polarizing axis of barbules and obtained a positive correlation between the reflectance spectra and opening width of the fanwise melanin rods. Moreover, the widely spreading reflection from the barbules may occur because of the fanwise melanin rod arrangement.

Plumage colour in Padovana chicken breed: growth performance and carcass quality

Padovana female chickens of two plumage varieties, chamois (PC) and silver (PS) and their cross (PC male × PS female) were reared from 1 d until 200 d of age, when they were slaughtered. PC has light brown feathers with white edge (chamois), PS has white feathers with black edge (silver); PCxPS has silver plumage (cross-S) or completely white plumage (cross-W) at a ratio, at hatching, of 1:2 as cross-S:cross-W. The chickens were kept in a breeder house from May until December. In a population of Padovana chickens, it seems to be a relationship between the colour plumage and body weight until the sexual maturity: from 2 weeks until 6 weeks of age the PC females exhibited a higher daily growth (p < .001) than PS, as well as body weight (p < .01) at 28 weeks. At 200 d, PC showed higher carcase (p < .05) and thigh (p < .05) weight than PS, but similar ready-to-cook carcase conformation and pH, colour, water losses and shear force of breast muscle; no difference was checked between the other groups. Under the environmental conditions of the trial, heterosis had a positive effect (p < .05) on the daily growth until 70 d of age for cross-S. The results shows a sexual dimorphism for body dimensions increasing until the pubertal age for all the groups; therefore, the females should be slaughtered about 8 weeks later than the males for achieving similar body weight and slaughtering performance and carcase quality.

Testosterone regulates scarlet plumage in red-backed fairy-wrens

As the days begin to lengthen and winter recedes for yet another year, many birds dust off their most glamorous plumage to attract a mate. Males often opt for ostentatious displays while females tend to the dowdier end of the spectrum. But what factors regulate the dramatic differences in avian regalia between males and females? Willow Lindsay from the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, explains that the hormones that regulate sexual differences were thought to play a key role in defining plumage patterns, but the precise role of individual hormones was less clear. As testosterone starts flowing in spring, male red-backed fairy-wrens (Malurus melanocephalus) shed their dreary brown feathers in favour of a vivid scarlet and glossy black coat, while the females retain their dingy brown and white plumage. So, Lindsay and Douglas Barron headed south to Queensland, Australia, to find out how the plumage of red-backed fairy-wrens altered after they received a testosterone implant.Initially, the males and females both looked drab; however, soon after the birds received the implant, the females moulted and began sprouting shorter male-like feathers. The females also produced a vibrant patch of red feathers on their backs, similar to the bright red streak on the males’ backs. In addition, the feathers on the crown, belly and breast of the females turned a shade of pinky-orange, which Lindsay said was: ‘Never previously documented on a red-backed fairy-wren’. Only one female went on to produce black feathers like those of the males, although the beaks of all of the females became darker. And when Lindsay and Barron injected some females with gonadotropin-releasing hormone, in a bid to naturally raise the birds’ testosterone levels, the females were unable to increase the levels of the hormone in their blood.So, it seems that testosterone is the hormone that regulates the production of the carotenoid pigments that produce the males’ scarlet plumage; however, the hormone was unable to elicit production of the jet-black melanin pigment that produces their distinctive dark feathers. It seems that the female fairy-wrens still maintain the essential hormone mechanism that allows the males to put on their gaudy display, although the females are unable to produce sufficient testosterone to trigger the masculine transformation.

Heterospecific female mimicry in Ficedula flycatchers

Mimicry is a widespread phenomenon. Vertebrate visual mimicry often operates in an intraspecific sexual context, with some males resembling conspecific females. Pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) dorsal plumage varies from the ancestral black to female-like brown. Experimental studies have shown that conspecific and heterospecific (collared flycatcher, F. albicollis) individuals of both sexes respond, at least initially, to brown individuals as if they were female. We quantified the perceptual and biochemical differences between brown feathers and found that brown pied flycatcher males are indistinguishable from heterospecific, but not from conspecific, females in both aspects. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence of a visual mimetic signalling system in a sexual context where the model is heterospecific to the mimic. By only mimicking heterospecific females, brown pied flycatcher males can establish territories next to the more dominant collared flycatcher in sympatry, suffer less aggression by darker conspecifics in allopatry and preserve within-species sexual recognition throughout the breeding range. A closer look at the evolutionary history and ecology of these two species illustrates how such a mimetic system can evolve. Although likely rare, this phenomenon might not be unique to Ficedula flycatchers.

Increased plumage darkness of female Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus bonariensis in the subtropics: an adaptation to bacterial degradation?

The Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis is a sexually dichromatic species, in which males have blackish‐blue iridescence and females are dull brown. However, in some subtropical parts of its distribution, females show a plumage polymorphism that ranges from dull brown to dark brown and even black. Plumage melanization has been shown to protect feathers from bacterial degradation, decreasing the effects of harmful bacterial activity and thus plumage damage. In this study, we assessed whether bacterial feather‐degrading activity is acting as the selective force to increase darkness in the plumage of the female Shiny Cowbirds in Argentina. We compared the degradation of female Shiny Cowbird feathers belonging to different colour morphs when exposed to bacterial strains isolated from subtropical and temperate zones of its distribution, as well as to Bacillus licheniformis. We did not find differences in susceptibility to bacterial degradation between brown feathers and darker feathers. These results suggest that female plumage polymorphism in Shiny Cowbirds has not arisen as a defence against bacterial feather‐degrading activity.

You Can't Judge a Pigment by its Color: Carotenoid and Melanin Content of Yellow and Brown Feathers in Swallows, Bluebirds, Penguins, and Domestic Chickens

Abstract The two main pigment types in bird feathers are the red, orange, and yellow carotenoids and the black, gray, and brown melanins. Reports conflict, however, regarding the potential for melanins to produce yellow colors or for carotenoids to produce brown plumages. We used high-performance liquid chromatography to analyze carotenoids and melanins present in the yellow and brown feathers of five avian species: Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis), Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica), King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Macaroni Penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus), and neonatal chickens (Gallus domesticus). In none of these species did we detect carotenoid pigments in feathers. Although carotenoids are reportedly contained in the ventral plumage of European Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica rustica), we instead found high concentrations of both eumelanins and phaeomelanins in North American Barn Swallows (H. r. erythrogaster). We believe we have detected a new form of plumage pigment that gives penguin and domestic- chick feathers their yellow appearance. No Puedes Juzgar un Pigmento por su Color: Contenido de Carotenoide y Melanina de Plumas Amarillas y Marrones en Golondrinas, Azulejos, Pingüinos y Gallinas Domésticas Resumen. Los dos tipos principales de pigmentos que las aves incorporan en sus plumas son carotenoides, para desarrollar plumajes rojo, naranja o amarillo, y melaninas, para adquirir coloración negra, marrón, gris o tonalidades color tierra. Sin embargo, existe información conflictiva sobre la potencial coloración de plumas amarillas basadas en melanina y la presencia de caroteniodes en el plumaje marrón de ciertas especies. En este estudio, usamos cromatografía líquida de alto rendimiento para analizar los tipos y cantidades de carotenoides y melaninas presentes en las plumas amarillas y marrones de cinco especies de aves: el azulejo Sialia sialis y la golondrina Hirundo rustica, los pingüinos Aptenodytes patagonicus y Eudyptes chrysolophus y el plumón natal amarillo de la gallina doméstica Gallus domesticus. En ninguna de estas especies detectamos pigmentos carotenoides en las plumas. A pesar de que los carotenoides han sido encontrados en el plumaje ventral de la golondrina Hirundo rustica rustica, nosotros en cambio encontramos altas concentraciones de eumelaninas y feomelaninas en H. r. erythrogaster y en azulejos que variaron entre individuos y regiones de plumaje. Creemos que hemos detectado una nueva forma de pigmento de plumaje que le da a las plumas de pingüinos y pollos domésticos su apariencia amarilla.

Feathering in commercial poultry I. Feather growth and composition

Feather growth, structure and patterns of moulting are important characteristics of poultry in commercial environments. As the market age for broilers continues to decline, the “maturity” of feather cover becomes even more important for protection of the skin and underlying tissue. Feather growth begins at around day 5 of incubation while keratinisation is complete 2 – 3 d prior to hatch. Feathers do not grow randomly over the skin surface, but rather in distinct tracts, which cover at most 75% of the skin surface. Broiler chickens will have about 50 g of feathers by market age, although at this early age some feathers will have already been lost by sequential moulting. Although most modern strains of poultry have white or brown feathers, there are various colour schemes that are again dictated during embryo development. In a subsequent paper, we will detail factors affecting feather growth, moulting and the occurrence of various abnormalities.

YOU CAN'T JUDGE A PIGMENT BY ITS COLOR: CAROTENOID AND MELANIN CONTENT OF YELLOW AND BROWN FEATHERS IN SWALLOWS, BLUEBIRDS, PENGUINS, AND DOMESTIC CHICKENS

Abstract The two main pigment types in bird feathers are the red, orange, and yellow carotenoids and the black, gray, and brown melanins. Reports conflict, however, regarding the potential for melanins to produce yellow colors or for carotenoids to produce brown plumages. We used high-performance liquid chromatography to analyze carotenoids and melanins present in the yellow and brown feathers of five avian species: Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis), Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica), King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Macaroni Penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus), and neonatal chickens (Gallus domesticus). In none of these species did we detect carotenoid pigments in feathers. Although carotenoids are reportedly contained in the ventral plumage of European Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica rustica), we instead found high concentrations of both eumelanins and phaeomelanins in North American Barn Swallows (H. r. erythrogaster). We believe we have detected a new form of plumage pigment that gives penguin and d...

Bh(black at hatch) gene appears to cause whole‐body hemorrhage in homozygous embryos of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

Genotypes of early embryos obtained from mating Bh/+ quail were determined by chorio-allantoic membrane grafting of their thigh skin, and the development of the Bh homozygous embryos was examined histologically. The Bh homozygous embryos died at an early stage of development (after 7 to 10 days of incubation) with a very high incidence of whole-body hemorrhage (approximately 100%), but malformation of neural tubes was not always accompanied by Bh homozygosity. Degeneration of the liver was more frequently observed in homozygous embryos than in wild-type and heterozygous embryos. The results suggest that the Bh gene causes whole-body hemorrhage and subsequent death of homozygous embryos. In addition, our data indicate that Bh homozygotes would develop brown feathers on their skin if they were able to survive.

Somatic and Germline Chicken Chimeras Obtained from Brown and White Leghorns by Transfer of Early Blastodermal Cells

Stage × blastodermal cells were isolated from freshly laid unincubated Brown Leghorn chicken eggs. Five hundred cells from Stage × Brown Leghorn embryos were injected into the subgerminal cavity of White Leghorn unincubated embryos exposed to 550 rad of γ irradiation from a cesium-137 source. Of 712 White Leghorn embryos that were irradiated and injected with Brown Leghorn blastodermal cells, 52 (7.3%) survived to hatching. Somatic chimerism was examined in the melanocyte population and erythroid lineage. The presence of brown feathers indicating donor cell contribution to melanocyte pigmentation was observed in 23 (44%) out of the 52 hatched chicks. Analysis of blood DNA was performed using a probe that revealed an endogenous retroviral gag fragment specific for the donor genome. Three out of these 23 chimeric chickens exhibited the gag-specific fragment. To test germline chimerism, chickens that reached sexual maturity were mated with Brown Leghorns. Three somatically chimeric hens produced Brown Leghorn progeny at a rate of 30.7, 9.2, and 2.9% respectively, thus proving donor cell contribution to the germline differentiation. Chimeric chickens obtained after injection of nonirradiated embryos exhibited a lower extent of chimerism at the feather level and did not show any chimerism in the erythroid lineage and the germline, thus demonstrating the value of the use of compromised recipient embryos to produce chimeras in chickens. Nevertheless, the extent of somatic chimerism could not be used to predict the germline chimerism.

Molting Adaptations of Rock Ptarmigan on Amchitka Island, Alaska

-The molting pattern of Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus gabrielsoni) from Amchitka Island differs from that of other described races in the feathers molted, temporal and sexual sequence of molt, and extent of molt. Partially dark feathers may completely cover the head of females as a part of the winter plumage. Many new brown feathers or retained old ones are also found on the upper parts primarily of females but of both sexes in winter. To date, only the mid-summer and male autumn plumage, on which the description of this race was based, has been documented. The Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) has distinct races occurring on such islands as Newfoundland, Greenland, Iceland, Scotland, the Aleutians and Japan. Of the 13 Palearctic races recognized by Vaurie (1965), only one (L. m. millaisi) from Scotland is said to retain some brown feathers in winter (Vaurie 1965, Cramp and Simmons 1980). None of the 10 Nearctic races discussed in Ridgway and Friedmann (1946) is said to do this, although adequate descriptions of the winter plumage for the races chamberlaini (includes sanfordi, fide Gabrielson and Lincoln [1953]) and gabrielsoni were not available. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) accepted eight races for Alaska (one was newly described after Ridgway and Friedmann) for three of which, all Aleutian Island forms, winter plumages have not been described. In the original description of L. m. gabrielsoni from Amchitka, Aleutian Islands, Murie (1944) had only summer and autumn specimens but suggested that the winter plumage was almost certainly completely white. At least two insular races of Willow Ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus scoticus, L. 1. variegatus) and the southernmost population of the race L. 1. maior are known to retain brown feathers in winter (Vaurie 1965, Cramp and Simmons 1980). In addition, stocks of L. mutus welchi from Newfoundland have been transplanted to warmer climates (Salomonsen 1939), where they have been found to retain brown feathers in winter; in some populations, where winter conditions and snow prevail through the summer, white dorsal feathers are retained as a part of the summer plumage (Salomonsen 1939). It seems adaptive to retain those complements of feathers that will provide most security from predation in regions of variable snow cover or unique environmental conditions. Populations that retain such mixtures of feathers represent a departure from the type or normal molt pattern and sequen e described by Salomonsen (1939). His type in the annual molt-activity of various feathers falls into five categories, some of which pe tain to both sexes equally while others pert in to only one. These categories may be generally summarized as: 1. One molt (basic in autumn) per year (includes most large feathers and some under body feath rs). 2. Two molts (basic plus alternate in winter) per year (mainly body feathers in males only). 3. Two molts (basic plus supplemental in summe ) per year (lesser wing coverts and under body feathers). 4. Two molts (alternate plus supplemental) per year (tertiaries in males, wing coverts in females). 5. Three molts (basic, alternate and supplemental) per year (upper parts, head, a few wing feathers and scapulars). In addition to chronicling the sequence of molt in Rock Ptarmigan, Salomonsen (1939) sp culated about the ecological functions of the molt, as well as the physiological and environmental variables affecting molting times, extent of molt, and coloration of plumage. Watson (1973) and Hewson (1973) presented data that raised doubt about some of Salomo sen's earlier hypotheses. Our findings also differ from the sequences that Salomonsen described. While studying the avifauna of Amchitka Isl nd, Alaska, we noticed that the winter plumage of the Rock Ptarmigan there, the southernmost Nearctic population except for Newfoundland, included many colored or partially colored feathers. We found that the par-

Changing Face of Spring

0 Now that winter snows are thawing and spring buds are starting to unfold, man doffs his heavy overcoat, sniffs the warming air and looks to the sky for signs of spring-the flash of a bluebird or the soft trill of an evening robin. But what is happening to these annual spirited sounds and sights that throughout man's history have symbolized the demise of winter, the return of spring? Where are the birds? Actually the birds are still with us, but the varieties are changing. There are fewer numbers of songbirds and more of the aggressive, annoying birds around man's habitations. Instead of the bright finery of a redbird in the bush, there are the saucy brown feathers of an English sparrow. Instead of the whistle of a thrush, the raucous tones of the grackle burst through the spring air. Where once the warbler dipped its yellow wings, the pigeon-toed pigeon lays a careless egg in a corner niche of a house.

The Effect of Thyroprotein, Thiouracil and Cortisone on the Feather Pigmentation of Turkey Poults

ABSTRACT TURKEY poults (Fritz et al., 1946), chickens (Klain et al., 1957) and rats (Vohra and Kratzer, 1956) have been shown to exhibit achromatosis when fed a lysine deficient diet. The melanin pigments of adult Brown Leghorn feathers are very sensitive to the administration of estrogen and the thyroid hormone (Trinkaus, 1953) but the estrogen effect is not manifested in thyroidectomized adult birds (Blivaiss, 1947 a,b). Estrogen administration, thyroidectomy or the administration of thyroxine is without effect on the juvenile flight and tail feathers of chicks (Trinkaus, 1950). Feeding thiouracil has been reported to cause the same changes as thyroidectomy in chickens (Juhn, 1946). In rats which were made gray by being fed a pantothenic acid deficient diet, adrenalectomy caused a transitory improvement in coat pigmentation (Ralli and Graef, 1943) while the injections of desoxycorticosterone acetate, following adrenalectomy, inhibited pigmentation (Ralli and Graef, 1945). The administration of cortisone resulted in the . . .

Description of a New Subspecies of Lyrurus tetrix form Korea

Diagnosis. _??_ ad. Near to L. tetrix ussuriensis (Kohts) form Northern Manchuria, but distinguishable form it by the under tail-coverts being pinkish buff instead of white; the glossy parts of the plumage with strongerpurplish blue reflections; the size smaller, and the thighs and legs covered with light blackish brown feath-ers with many small white speckles.The female differs form that of ussuriensis, by the size being smaller, and the under tail-coverts warm buff broadly barred with blackish brown.The type specimen (adult male)is form eastern side of Mt. Hakuto, North Kankyo-do, korea, October 24, 1927. It is preserved in the collection of Mr. Sakae Katsura in Kyo-jo, North Kankyo-do in N. Korea.Habitat: Probably confined to the mountainous parts of Northern Korea.Measurements. -_??_ :wing, 260; tail, 205; tarsus, 45; culmen, 21.5._??_: wing, 235; tail, 135; tarsus, 41; culmen, 21.