Brown Coal Mining Research Articles

Microbial activity in reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining sites near Sokolov (Czech Republic)

Microbial activity reflects soil conditions and degree of development. The aim of this study was to compare microbial properties of reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining soil. Microbial biomass, microbial respiration, and cellulose decomposition were quantified in two chronosequences of post-mining sites located in the Sokolov brown-coal mining area. The first chronosequence consisted of five sites reclaimed with an alder plantation ( Alnus glutinosa, Alnus incana), and the other consisted of five unreclaimed sites naturally colonized by local vegetation (especially Salix caprea, Betula pendula and Populus tremula). The spoil material of all the studied sites consisted of tertiary clays without any topsoil cover. Microbial respiration per unit of soil mass as well as per unit of soil area decreased as site age increased. Microbial biomass, whether expressed as a function of soil mass or area, increased with site age in both reclaimed and unreclaimed sites. When expressed per m 2, proportion of deeper soil layers (5–10 cm) on overall microbial biomass in 0–10 cm layer increased with site age. This increase was more pronounced in reclaimed than in unreclaimed sites. Cellulose decomposition was highest in 8-year-old sites in the reclaimed chronosequence and in 17–21-year-old sites in the unreclaimed chronosequence. The cellulose decomposition rate was higher in reclaimed than in unreclaimed sites. In reclaimed sites, the decomposition rate depended on air temperature, while in unreclaimed sites other factors, such as moisture deficiency, seemed to drive decomposition rate in some locations. Overall, microbial activity increased faster in reclaimed than in unreclaimed sites, and this difference was most evident in younger sites.

Breeding habitat of sparrowhawks, Accipiter nisus on spoil heaps after coal mining

Natural succession of spoil heaps after brown coal mining leads to the development of rich plant and invertebrate communities and therefore has been considered a proper alternative to conventional reclamation practice. Little is known, however, about the effects of these alternative approaches on vertebrate predators. This study analyses nest-site choice of the sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus on afforested spoil heaps in the brown coal basin of north-west Bohemia, Czech Republic. Nest places of sparrowhawks, numbers of their main prey (small birds) and habitat attributes were investigated in 2007 and 2008 on 28 individual spoil heaps that were either reclaimed by silviculture or spontaneously afforested. Our results revealed preferences of breeding sparrowhawks for spontaneously developed birch growths with diverse mosaics of tree clumps, open patches and edge structures, all providing for opportunities to hunt. In addition, the proximity of large forests positively influenced nest-site choice of sparrowhawks. Although small birds were more abundant on Successions than Reclamations, our results did not suggest that numbers of this main prey were of higher importance for the sparrowhawks than habitat components of prey availability. These results highlight the importance of spontaneous succession as a rehabilitation alternative in post-mining landscapes.

Relationships between microstructural features and mesoscopic fracture density in a Pleistocene till (Konin area, central Poland)

The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of microstructures in a till were analysed with SEM; it was also investigated whether the results depend on the till’s mesostructural characteristics. The till, exposed in a few open-cast browncoal mines near Konin in central Poland, is cut by numerous fractures which correspond to Riedel shear patterns, P-type structures and C-S type foliations. The fractures developed as a result of simple shearing induced by movement of the base of the Odranian ice sheet. On the basis of fracture density, two till types are distinguished: coarsely-brecciated till (wide spacing of fractures) and finely-brecciated till (closely spaced fractures). It is found that the fracture density is reflected in the microstructure of the till. The finely-brecciated till is characterised by a high porosity and has predominantly anisometric and fissure-like pores that also show a more clearly preferred orientation than the pores in the coarsely-brecciated till. In contrast, the coarsely-brecciated till has anisometric pores that show a less preferential orientation. The porosity of the coarsely-brecciated till is lower than in the finely-brecciated till. The finely-brecciated till probably represents a strongly deformed deposit, related in some cases to zones developed along thrusts that cut the till. Positive correlation between the porosity, the spatial arrangement of pores, and the density of fractures suggests a synsedimentary origin of the shear strain. This strain was accommodated by a particulate flow developed within both wide, pervasive zones and narrow, localised zones. The hydraulic conditions within the subglacial shear zone controlled rheological differences within the till during deformation and thus influenced the degree of the microstructure alteration.

Brown coal planning as a basis for sustainable settlement development

The paper describes the transformation process of the East-German brown coal mining in connection with the reorganization of the power industry after the political change in 1989. The objectives of this transformation process is the reduction of heavy environmental pollution, primarily the reduction of SO2- and airborne particles and past pollutions, as well as the mine reclamation stopping the further degradation of settlements with technical infrastructure. The paper focuses on the elaboration of brown coal mining plans for living and abandoned mining as integral parts of the regional plans in Saxony. The principle of the primary integration of landscape planning into regional planning organizing land use and settlement development will be explained. Based on the Chinese planning system starting points for planning developments in China will be discussed.

A very public death: dying of mesothelioma and asbestos-related lung cancer (M/ARLC) in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia

It is anticipated that in Australia the number of cases of mesothelioma will continue to rise significantly over the next 15 years with power station workers having a risk second only to asbestos mill workers. Mesothelioma responds poorly to treatment and is almost always fatal, yet there have been few studies related to the palliative care needs of this diagnostic group and none focussing on the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia. The aims of this pilot study were to identify common issues and to explore the needs and experiences of people with mesothelioma and asbestos-related lung cancer (M/ARLC), their carers, and service providers in the Latrobe Valley community, in particular in relation to palliative care. The study employed a case study design using in-depth interviews, media reports, local authority and employer reports and historical data, which were content analysed. The constant comparative method was used to identify common themes and issues. The Latrobe Valley is the fourth largest regional area in Victoria. The electricity industry and brown coal mining at the town of Yallourn were the primary industries. Former power workers are contracting mesothelioma at a rate seven times the national average. A total of 13 participants from the Latrobe Valley were interviewed, comprising five key stakeholders who were local legal and healthcare providers; two people who had been diagnosed with mesothelioma; and six family carers. Most people with M/ARLC in the Latrobe Valley are older males who were employed by the electricity and related industries, while their carers are mostly female wives and daughters. There were three major themes identified in the data: illness experience; carer and family roles; and services and service gaps. The results indicated that those with M/ARLC and their families experience diagnosis and treatment as being filled with unpredictability and fear. The older males with M/ARLC were characterised as stoic and reluctant to seek help, contributing to a delayed diagnosis. However, their rural health services compounded these delays because of the unpredictability of health professional availability. Although there are some cancer treatment and legal services locally, people with M/ARLC are often required to travel to metropolitan services for care and advice. The effort and time required to seek compensation at a time of declining health was particularly burdensome. Participants expressed the tension between feelings of loyalty to their employers and anger at the perceived betrayal of the same employers, who were reported to have ignored asbestos warnings. Access to palliative care was delayed by a discomfort associated with acknowledgement of dying and resulted in poor symptom control and a lack of support to significantly burdened carers. People with M/ARLC have a strong desire to die at home but issues of rurality, isolation and late referral to palliative care services often complicate their care. This pilot study explored the needs of people with M/ARLC in the Latrobe Valley and the results indicated that their experience is complicated by unpredictability, lack of information and the rural location. The study recommended that innovative models of care be investigated to improve communication and continuity of care in the Latrobe Valley community, in addition to the barriers and enablers to local health and legal service provision. Further, the study indicates that a comprehensive education strategy for local health providers and community members, and strategies to prevent and manage volunteer and health professional burnout are needed.

An analysis of the causes of a BWE counterweight boom support fracture

A bucket wheel excavator (BWE) collapsed in a brown coal mine. As a result of a tie rod fracture the counterweight boom, the discharge boom and several other components of the other assemblies underwent plastic deformation. This paper presents the results of computer simulations of the collapse. A finite element method analysis of the counterweight boom tie rod showed stress concentrations exceeding the allowable level. Also material tests of the fracture surface were carried out to identify the causes of the collapse. Macroscopic and microscopic images of areas within the fracture were obtained. Measurements of hardness and microhardness in the vicinity of the weld were performed. The FEM analyses and material tests showed that the causes of the collapse were design and welding faults.

Evidence for Iron- and Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria and Archaea in a Currently Active Lignite Mining Area of Lusatia (Eastern Germany)

The largest lignite mining area in Europe is located 150 km southeast of Berlin. Acidic lakes exist in this area, known to be caused by marcasite oxidation. Thirty-two samples from the open-pit brown coal-mine Jaenschwalde were analyzed for microorganisms. Cell numbers determined after separation from sand particles revealed concentrations of 102 to 107 microorganisms per g sample. In samples exposed to the air within an hour, up to 4x107 cells were counted. Measurement of metabolic activity by microcalorimetry showed for such samples up to 50 µW per g sand, whereas in heap samples (with low moisture) low or even no activity was measurable. DNA extraction was successful for 28 samples. In 26 samples microbial 16S rRNA genes were amplified by PCR. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and At. thiooxidans specific amplificates were detected by nested PCR in 23 and 10 cases, respectively. A specific signal indicating Leptospirillum ferrooxidans was obtained with nine samples. Random samples were sequenced and showed 96 to 99 % identity with published data of all three species. Surprisingly, in four samples archaeal 16S rRNA genes were amplified by PCR. Sequencing of two samples showed 99 % identity with unidentified or uncultured archaea found in NCBI-databases. Molecular biology results for At. ferrooxidans as well as for At. thiooxidans were supported by successful isolations of pure cultures in 23 cases. Cultivation of the archaea failed so far. These data indicate that iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms occur at these sites in large numbers. If in addition the evidence for archaea can become verified, a screening for hot spots as the sites of their occurrence would become interesting.

Occupational diseases. Epidemiological trends of the occupational dust diseases, prevention and early diagnosis

The aim of the study was to present the main groups of occupational diseases In Bulgaria, as well as the epidemiological trends and the prognosis of the benign and malignant occupational dust diseases in workers exposed to non-organic dust up to 1985y, and during 1985 - 2003 periods, as well as to propose ideas for adequate medical check-up. Materials and methods. We investigated the all number of patients with benign and malignant occupational dust diseases in Bulgaria during the period 1985 - 2000y was investigated. The information was obtained by the last regional departments for medical service of pneumoconiosis in Bulgaria. Addition- ally, we investigated dust diseases in 116 miners from brown coal mining in Bobov dol mine, 113p. - from black coal mining in Balkan mine, 53p. - from anthracite coal mining in Antra, 198 - from lead-zinc ore mining in Lucky, Gorubso, and 120 asbestos exposed workers, who have worked since 1985 to 2003y, and 121 non-exposed workers have used as a control group. A clinical (anamnesis, physical examination), radiological (chest ex-ray, accounted by ILO'80) and spirometry was done of dust exposed workers and non-exposed screened individuals were performed. A non-parametric statistical analysis with significance calculation (P) by us age SPSS software was done. Additionally, the all number and the incidence of malignant mesothelioma per 100000 person's population were investigated. Results and discussion. The dust diseases in exposed workers up to 1985y decrease. We detected new diagnosed pneumoconiosis and occupational dust bronchitis in patients with 10+years exposure to quartz and asbestos, who have been worked up to 1985y. It has been accounted an increase of the incidence of malignant mesothelioma during the period 1990 - 2000y. Conclusions. We prognosticate a rise in the incidence of silicosis, asbestosis, and mesothelioma in the future 10-20 y. due to low quality of the preventive measures in the basic dust industries in Bulgaria during the last two decades. We consider it is necessary to perform wide studies in dust exposed workers, and to create a register of the dust, as well as of the exposed workers, and of the dust diseases in Bulgaria. Scripta Scientifica Medica 2009; 41(1): 103-106.

The use of hydrogel in afforestation of postindustrial areas

Some areas intended for afforestation are characterised by a lack of moisture and mineral nutrients. One of the approaches to improve water retention capacity of soils is the use of hydrogels (polymer soil conditioners). The presented experiment was performed with 4 different methods of hydrogel applications and control in a postindustrial area – a dumping ground of the Brown Coal Mine Belchatow (Forest District Administration Belchatow). The Aquaterra product (pure hydrogel) and hydrogel with nutrients (TerraVit) produced by TerraGubin company were used in all experiments. From 292 to 306 one-year old seedlings of Pinus sylvestris L. of an average height of 80–101 mm were planted in each plot. The influence of hydrogel application method on successful afforestation and growth of seedling was analyzed after the first vegetation year. Maximum number of survived seedlings (93.3%) was observed for hydrogel applied through roots coating, minimum (72.4%) for hydrogel with fertilizers applied under plants. Results obtained for pure hydrogel surface application (89.1%) and pure hydrogel applied under plants (85.3%) can be compared with results from control plot (89.7%). Mean heights of surviving seedlings were similar (128–130 mm) for root coating, and both methods of hydrogel application under plants, in contrast with surficial hydrogel application (117 mm) and control where they were minimal (111 mm). Mean height increments in surviving seedlings were minimum in control plot (31 mm), and similar (38–40 mm) for root coating and surface application. The best results of height increments (47 mm) were obtained when hydrogel mixed with fertiliser was applied under plants. To sum up, in view of plant survival the best method of polymer soil conditioner (hydrogel) application was root coating; this method gave also satisfactory increments of plant height.

The natural radioactivity in vicinity of the brown coal mine Tusnica – Livno, BiH

Coal mine Tusnica is located in South-West part of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the municipality Livno. Coal mine Tusnica consists of two surface coal mines. The first one is brown coal surface deposit called Drage and second one is lignite deposit called Table. The brown coal deposit shows increased levels of natural radionuclides. The highest absorbed dose rate is recorded in the center of the surface coal mine Tusnica-Drage (500 nGy h-1 ) as result of the increased content of uranium and radium in coal (average specific activity of U-238 is 623 ± 23 Bq kg-1 and Ra-226 is 1191 ± 5 Bq kg-1 ). Levels of natural radionuclides in the vicinity of the surface deposit Drage in agricultural soil (about 3 km of the centre mine) are slightly increased due to the use of the coal ash and coal dust for fertilization of the land (U-238 is 142 ± 11 Bq kg-1 and Ra-226 is 197 ± 2 Bq kg-1 ). Obtained results in soil-plant-animal products chain does not show significantly increased levels of natural radionuclides due to the fact that mentioned radionuclides, in general, have a low transfer factors in soil-plant-animal products chain.

Enzyme activities and microbial biomass in topsoil layer during spontaneous succession in spoil heaps after brown coal mining

Changes in the activity of extracellular enzymes (cellobiohydrolase, β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, chitinase, arylsulfatase and phosphatases) and the changes in microbial community and abiotic properties in the topsoil layer, as well as soil abiotic properties during primary succession were investigated in a brown coal mine deposit area near Sokolov, Czech Republic. The study considered the chronosequence of 4 post-mining plots, 4-, 12-, 21- and 45-year old. The 4-year old site had no vegetation cover. Herbs and grasses (mainly Calamagrostis epigeios) were present on the 12-year old plot, shrubs ( Salix caprea) occurred on the 21-year old plot and tree cover ( Betula spp. and Populus tremuloides) developed on the 45-year old plot. Soil pH gradually decreased with site age, while the content of P, K, C and N peaked in the 21-year old site, being significantly lower in the 45-year old site and much lower in the 4- and 12-year old sites. Phosphatase activities were strongly affected by seasonality while the activities of all the other enzymes measured were more influenced by the effects of succession age and soil layer than by seasonality. Succession age was also the most important factor affecting the total and bacterial PLFA contents, followed by the effects of soil layer and season while for the fungal biomass content-related properties (ergosterol, fungal PLFA and the fungal/bacterial PLFA ratio), season was the most important. Activities of individual enzymes in the topsoil (0–5 cm depth) were significantly affected by both site age and season. Cellobiohydrolase and β-xylosidase were more affected by site age while chitinase and phosphatases were more affected by season. Enzyme activity increased with succession age. Comparison of the effect of site and season on enzyme activity showed that season played a principal role in the enzyme activity of the entire 0–5 cm component of topsoil, as well the soil layers when evaluated separately.

Reclamation areas and their development studied by vegetation indices

Large areas in the Czech Republic were used for open casts of brown coal mining. Many of them have been already closed. Reclamation of them and of their dumps is the next step intheir development. It is possible to divide used reclamations into the forest, hydrologic, agricultural and other ones – roads, etc. Their age varies from 45 years to as yet unfinished. Reclaimed areas are documented in reclamation projects. Information about age and land use determined groups of these areas to be evaluated by vegetation indices. 100 areas with forest type were evaluated. Eight vegetation indices (NDVI, DVI, RVI, PVI, SAVI, MSAVI, TSAVI and EVI) were calculated and their average value in each area in 1988, 1992 and 1998 Thematic Mapper data were compared. Changes over years showed close relation to precipitations of previous periods. This relation was confirmed by evaluation of forest areas situated near reclamation areas. Positive/negative changes of vegetation indices were different for different groups and different vegetation indices. An overview of results of vegetation indices is presented for individual areas whose land use comprised at least partly forest stand. Results in a 4-year period (1988–1992) were in many areas by many indices negative, changes in 10 years were in most areas by most vegetation indices positive. Changes, minimum values and maximum values in groups were compared. Evaluation of vegetation indices brought again various results. One vegetation index is not sufficient to prove improvement/deterioration of vegetation changes. Precipitation state before measurement should be controlled. Temporary shortage of precipitation can cause vegetation cover deterioration, which is also only temporary. The best development derived from vegetation indices evaluation was found at forest reclamation with mixed tree stand that was 10–20 years old. The method was derived as a tool for post-finishing control of vegetation development of reclamations performed in several year periods.

Rapid climatic events as recorded in Middle Weichselian thermokarst lake sediments

From a Middle Weichselian sediment sequence in the opencast brown coal mine of Reichwalde (eastern Germany), a ∼40 cm thick thermokarst gyttja deposit has been sampled. The AMS 14C dates, although at the limit of detection, indicate an early Middle Weichselian age of the gyttja. Pollen, botanical, and zoological (e.g. chironomids) macroremains have been analyzed. Botanical and chironomid taxa indicate warm climatic conditions in the bottom part of the sequence. For this lower part the botanical data suggest a minimum mean July temperature of 12–14 °C. Following this, a cooling is indicated, coinciding with an increased clastic deposition in the lake. A return to permafrost conditions is reconstructed for the upper part of the sequence. The combined evidence strongly suggests a degradation of permafrost due to increased warming in response to a D/O event as a forcing factor for the thermokarst lake formation.

Root systems of forest tree species and their soil-conservation functions on the Krušné hory Mts. slopes disturbed by mining

The paper describes the root system architecture of the forest tree species <I>Fagus sylvatica</I> L.,<I> Quercus robur</I> L.,<I> Pinus sylvestris</I> L.,<I> Carpinus betulus</I> L.,<I> Acer platanoides</I> L., and <I>Alnus glutinosa</I> (L.) Gaertn. at the age of 80–220 years growing on the slopes of the Krušné hory Mts. at the altitude of 330 to 480 m above sea level. These species were influenced by open-pit mining of brown coal as well as by power engineeting. The investigation also involves the determination of soil properties of Ranker Cambisols.

Ground Water Flow Modelling Applications in Mining Hydrogeology

Some specific features and problems of numerical modelling applications in mining environment are briefly discussed and three modelling case studies are presented. Two of the applications are aimed at mine dewatering problems in active coal mines. The first represents the underground hard coal mining region in the Czech part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. The second example is focussed on optimisation of the dewatering regime of open pit mining of brown coal in the Most sub-basin of the North Bohemian Coal Basin. The third example describes how mathematical modelling can be applied to solve issues associated with the intensive use of mine waters from the flooded Olsi-Drahonin mine as a source of uranium to shorten the time necessary for the purification of mine waters discharged into watercourses.

Palynostratigraphy of the Erkovtsy field of brown coal (the Zeya-Bureya sedimentary basin)

The Erkovtsy brown coal field in the northwestern Zeya-Bureya sedimentary basin (129°–130° E, 46°–47° N) is structurally confined to southern flank of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Belogor’e depression. The verified stratigraphic scheme of the coalfield sedimentary sequence is substantiated by palynological data on core samples from 18 boreholes sampled in the course of detailed prospecting and by paleobotanical analysis of sections in the Yuzhnyi sector of the coalfield (data of 1998 by M.A. Akhmetiev and S.P. Manchester). Sections of the Erkovtsy, Arkhara-Boguchan, and Raichikha brown-coal mines are correlated. Stratigraphic subdivisions distinguished in the studied sedimentary succession are the middle and upper Tsagayan subformations (the latter incorporating the Kivda Beds), Raichikha, Mukhino, Buzuli, and Sazanka formations.

Selected physical properties of initial soils on the outside spoil bank of the Belchatow brown coal mine

The purpose of the study was to assess, in respect of selected physical properties, the reclamation of the northern slope of the outside spoil bank of the Belchatów brown coal mine by reforestation carried out 20 years ago. Investigations were carried out on 55 permanent research plots. This study confirmed the efficiency of reclamation of strip-mine spoils, and its results allowed to point out the properties of initial soils as the most useful characteristics for the assessment of land reclamation by reforestation.

Petrological, organic geochemical and geochemical characteristics of coal from the Soko mine, Serbia

A petrological, organic geochemical and geochemical study was performed on coal samples from the Soko Mine, Soko Banja basin, Serbia. Ten coal and two carbonaceous clay samples were collected from fresh, working faces in the underground brown coal mine from different parts of the main coal seam. The Lower Miocene, low-rank coal of the Soko Mine is a typical humic coal with huminite concentrations of up to 76.2 vol.%, liptinite less than 14 vol.% and inertinite less than 11 vol.%. Ulminite is the most abundant maceral with variable amounts of densinite and clay minerals. Sporinite and resinite are the most common macerals of the liptinite group. Inertodetrinite is the most abundant maceral of the inertinite group. The mineral-bituminous groundmass identified in some coal samples, and carbonaceous marly clay, indicate sub-aquatic origin and strong bacterial decomposition. The mean random huminite reflectance (ulminite B) for the main coal seam is 0.40 ± 0.05% Rr, which is typical for an immature to early mature stage of organic matter. The extract yields from the coal of the Soko Banja basin ranges from 9413 to 14,096 ppm, in which alkanes constituted 1.0–20.1%, aromatics 1.3–14.7%, asphaltenes 28.1–76.2% and resins 20.2–43.5%. The saturated hydrocarbon fractions included n-C15 to n-C32, with an odd carbon number that predominate in almost all the samples. The contents of n-C27 and n-C29 alkanes are extremely high in some samples, as a contribution of epicuticular waxes from higher plants. Acyclic isoprenoid hydrocarbons are minor constituents in the aliphatic fraction, and the pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratio varies between 0.56 and 3.13, which implies anaerobic to oxic conditions during sedimentation. The most abundant diterpanes were abietane, dehydroabietane and 16α(H)-phyllocladane. In samples from the upper part of the coal seam, diterpanes are the dominant constituents of the alkane fraction. Polycyclic alkanes of the triterpane type are important constituents of alkane fractions. The occurrence of ββ- and αβ-type hopanes from C27 to C31, but without C28, is typical for the Soko Banja coals. The major and trace elements in the coal were analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In comparison with world lignites, using the geometric mean value, the coal from the Soko Banja Basin has a high content of strontium (306.953 mg/kg). Higher values than the world lignites were obtained for Mo (3.614 mg/kg), Ni (8.119 mg/kg), Se (0.884 mg/kg), U (2.642 mg/kg) and W (0.148 mg/kg). Correlation analysis shows inorganic affinity for almost all the major and trace elements, except for S, which has an organic affinity.

The effect of litter quality and soil faunal composition on organic matter dynamics in post-mining soil: A laboratory study

Laboratory microcosms were constructed consisting of mineral soil (alkaline clay spoil substrate from brown-coal mine tailings) and two types of litter: (1) taken from an unreclaimed site with naturally developed vegetation (mostly Salix caprea) or (2) collected from an alder plantation (a mixture of Alnus glutinosa and A. incana). Microcosms with both kinds of litter were inoculated with five different types of decomposer community: (1) microorganisms-only, (2) microorganisms + mesofauna, (3) microorganisms + mesofauna + litter feeding macro-arthropods (millipedes and diptern larvae), (4) microorganisms + mesofauna + litter dwelling earthworms ( Dendrobaena octaedra and Dendrodrilus rubidus) and (5) microorganisms + mesofauna + Lumbricus rubellus. Microorganisms and animals used for microcosms inoculation were collected in the same sites as the litter used in the microcosms. Four replicates for each of 10 treatments were incubated in the dark at 15 °C for 90 days. The presence of macrofauna resulted in more extensive litter removal from the litter layer in microcosms derived from the reclaimed site, while in microcosms derived from the unreclaimed site, litter removal increased significantly only in the earthworm treatment. Litter removal was correlated with the accumulation of carbon in the mineral layer of the unreclaimed site microcosms ( r = 0.802), while for the reclaimed site material it was correlated with C loss from the microcosms ( r = 0.704). Removal of litter from the litter layer and accumulation of C and N in the mineral layer increased microbial respiration and biomass measured as total PLFA.

The origin of a giant downward directed clastic dyke in a kame (Bełchatów mine, central Poland)

A kame near Czubata Góra in the Pleistocene overburden of the Bełchatów open-cast browncoal mine in central Poland shows several types of deformations. A number of diapirs occur, but also a structure that shows all characteristics of a diapir but consists of sediments that apparently intruded the underlying rather than the overlying sediments. Analysis of this structure shows that it consists of material that was originally deposited as a fine-grained (mainly silty) glacilacustrine sediment. Seismic activity triggered the material to fluidise, resulting in a structureless mass. Part of the fluidised material flowed down into a fissure that had formed in the underlying sediments (probably due to tectonics in the active graben), thus forming a clastic dyke; more of the overlying silty material was later pressed down into a dyke with the shape of a downward directed diapir.