IL-4 Levels In Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid Research Articles

Elafibranor PPARα/δ Dual Agonist Ameliorates Ovalbumin-Induced Allergic Asthma.

Asthma is characterized by chronic inflammation and respiratory tract remodeling. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) play important roles in the pathogenesis and regulation of chronic inflammatory processes in asthma. The role of PPARγ has been studied using synthetic PPARγ agonists in patients with asthma. However, involvement of PPARα/δ has not been studied in asthma. In the present study, we investigated if elafibranor, a PPARα/δ dual agonist, can modulate ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic asthma, which is a potential drug candidate for non-alcoholic fatty liver in obese patients. Elafibranor suppresses antigen-induced degranulation in RBL-2H3 mast cells without inducing cytotoxicity in vitro. In mice with OVA-induced allergic asthma, the administration of elafibranor suppressed OVA-induced airway hyper-responsiveness at a dose of 10 mg/kg. Elafibranor also suppressed the OVA-induced increase in immune cells and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Histological studies suggested that elafibranor suppressed OVA-induced lung inflammation and mucin hyper-production in the bronchial airways. In addition, elafibranor suppressed OVA-induced increases in serum immunoglobulin E and IL-13 levels in BALF. Conversely, the present study suggests that elafibranor has the potential for use in patients with allergic asthma.

Changes of allergic inflammation and immunological parameters after Alt a 1 and A. alternata immunotherapy in mice

BackgroundThe efficacy of allergen-specific subcutaneousimmunotherapy (SCIT) with Alt a 1 of the fungus A. alternata is still unknown. Yet, few studies compare the therapeutic effects and immunological mechanisms of Alt a 1 and A. alternata extracts. We aim to explore and compare the changes in allergic inflammation and immunological mechanisms of Alt a 1 and A. alternata in mice. MethodsFemale BALB/c mice administrated recombinant Alt a 1 (rAlt a 1), native Alt a 1 (nAlt a 1), and A. alternata. Lung histology, airway hyper-reactivity (AHR), bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) cytokine levels, serum immunoglobulin responses, the expression of Bcl-6, the percentages of T follicular helper cells (Tfh), cytokine-related Tfh subtypes, regulatory B cells (Breg), and IL-10+ Breg cells were detected. ResultsHigh-purity nAlt 1 protein was obtained. SCIT with Alt a 1 and Alternaria decreased airway and lung inflammation, including improvement of lung pathology, lower levels of AHR, reduction of total cell numbers, and IL-4 and IL-13 levels in BALF. Furthermore, Alt a 1-SCIT effectively suppressed the IgE responses, elevated IgG titers, and was superior in decreasing the expression of Bcl-6. Additionally, Alternaria-SCIT significantly decreased the expression of Tfh cells, L-4+ Tfh, and IL-5+ Tfh cells in the spleen, whereas Alt a 1 showed superior therapeutic effects in the lymph node. IL-13+ Tfh cells in these two treatment groups not being significant. IL-17A+ Tfh cells were alleviated most effectively after A. alternata-SCIT in both the spleen and lymph node. Intriguingly, IL-10+ Breg cells decreased remarkably in response to SCIT with rAlt a 1. ConclusionsTreatments with Alt a 1 and A. alternata extracts had beneficial effects on allergic inflammation. Alt a 1-SCIT resulted in prominent improvement in the immunoglobulin responses, Bcl-6, and IL-10+ Breg cells. Alternaria-SCIT was more likely to suppress the expression of Tfh and cytokine-related Tfh subtypes.

Fenofibrate attenuates asthma features in an ovalbumin-induced mouse model via suppressing NF-κB binding activity

Background/aimAsthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways with a high prevalence. Asthma has a complex pathophysiology and about 5–10% of patients are not fully responsive to the currently available treatments. The aim of this study is to investigate the involvement of NF-κB in the effects of fenofibrate on a mouse model of allergic asthma. Materials and methodsA total of 49 BALB/c mice were randomly distributed into 7 groups (n = 7). Allergic asthma model was created by administering i.p. injections of ovalbumin on days 0, 14 and 21, followed by provocation with inhaled ovalbumin on days 28, 29 and 30. Fenofibrate was orally given in 3 different doses; 1, 10 and 30 mg/kg through days 21–30 of the experiment. On day 31, pulmonary function test using whole body plethysmography was performed. The mice were sacrificed 24 h later. Blood samples were obtained, and serum of each sample was separated for IgE determination. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues were collected to measure IL-5 and IL-13 levels. Nuclear extracts of lung tissues were employed to assess nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 binding activity. ResultsEnhanced Pause (Penh) values were significantly increased in ovalbumin-sensitized and challenged mice (p < 0.01). Administration of fenofibrate (10 and 30 mg/kg) resulted in improved pulmonary function as shown by significantly lower Penh values (p < 0.01). Interleukin (IL) − 5 and IL-13 levels in BALF and lung tissues and immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels in serum were significantly elevated in the allergic mice. IL-5 levels in the lung tissues of mice treated with 1 mg/kg fenofibrate (FEN1) group were significantly reduced (p < 0.01). BALF and lung tissue IL-5 and IL-13 levels in mice treated with 10 and 30 mg/kg fenofibrate, FEN10 and FEN30, respectively, were significantly diminished when compared to the ovalbumin-treated (OVA) group, whereas treatment with 1 mg/kg fenofibrate resulted in insignificant changes. IgE levels in the serum of FEN30 group mice have shown a prominent reduction (p < 0.01). NF-κB p65 binding activity was higher in mice sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (p < 0.01). NF-κB p65 binding activity was significantly reduced in allergic mice treated with 30 mg/kg (p < 0.01) fenofibrate. ConclusionsIn this study, we showed that administration of 10 and 30 mg/kg fenofibrate effectively attenuated airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in a mouse model of allergic asthma, possibly through inhibition of NF-κB binding activity.

The effect of mitochondria-targeted slow hydrogen sulfide releasing donor AP39-treatment on airway inflammation

Mitochondrial dysfunction has been shown to contribute to the pathophysiology of airway diseases. Therefore, mitochondria are targeted in the development of new therapeutic approaches. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been shown to be involved in the pathophysiological processes of airway inflammation. We aimed to evaluate the effect of mitochondria-targeted slow H2S releasing donor AP39 [(10-oxo-10-(4-(3-thioxo-3H-1,2-dithiol5yl)phenoxy)decyl)triphenylphosphoniumbromide)] on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced airway inflammation in mice. LPS was applied to female Balb/c mice by intranasal (i.n.) route to induce airway inflammation and the subgroups of mice were treated with i.n. AP39 (250–1000 nmol/kg). 48 h after LPS administration airway reactivity was evaluated in vivo, then bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and lungs were collected. LPS application led to bronchial hyperreactivity and neutrophil infiltration into the lung tissues along with increased TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels in BAL fluid. LPS also induced an increase in the rate of glycolysis, glycogenolysis and Krebs-cycle. AP39 treatment prevented the LPS-induced bronchial hyperreactivity and reversed the increase in TNF-α and IL-6 levels in BAL fluid. The increase in neutrophil numbers in BAL fluid was also prevented by AP39 treatment at the highest dose. Our results indicate that AP39 can prevent bronchial hyperreactivity and decrease airway inflammation. Targeting H2S to the mitochondria may be a new therapeutic approach in airway inflammation.

Sinapic acid ameliorates airway inflammation in murine ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma by reducing Th2 cytokine production

ObjectiveAsthma is a chronic inflammatory airway disease associated with the airway narrowing and obstruction. Sinapic acid (SA), a hydroxycinnamic acid, possesses various pharmacological properties including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. This research evaluated effects of different doses of SA on murine model of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic asthma. Materials and methodsAllergic asthma induced by sensitizing mice on days 1 and 14 by intraperitoneal injection of OVA. After initial sensitization, between days 21 and 23, mice were challenged for 30 min with an aerosol of 1 % (wt/vol) OVA. Treatment with dexamethasone (3 mg/kg) or SA (25, 50 or 100 mg/kg) were done by oral gavage on days 15–23. Inflammatory cells infiltration and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interlukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5 and IL-13 levels were evaluated in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Serum total and OVA-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) and lung tissue nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured. Histological changes in lung tissue were examined by staining with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) for cell infiltration, periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) for mucus production and Masson's trichrome for collagen deposition. ResultsTreatment with SA significantly inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration, enhanced IFN-γ level and decreased IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF. Serum total and OVA-specific IgE levels and NO level in lung tissue were significantly reduced by SA. Histological examination demonstrated that SA significantly attenuated inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus-producing cells in the lung. ConclusionThese data suggest that SA may be a new therapeutic potential to treat allergic asthma through suppressing T-helper 2 immune responses.

Panton-valentine leucocidin carrying Staphylococcus aureus causing necrotizing pneumonia inactivates the JAK/STAT signaling pathway and increases the expression of inflammatory cytokines.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin, a pore-forming toxin, is a common cause of necrotizing pneumonia. However, the early pulmonary inflammatory response following PVL(+) MRSA infection is unknown. The purpose of this study was to use a murine model to determine the effect of PVL(+) MRSA on lung tissues and the expression of cytokines and JAK and STAT mRNA and protein. Mice were randomly divided into 3 groups and intra-nasally treated with PBS (control group), recombinant PVL (rPVL group), and PVL(+) MRSA (PVL group). At 24 and 48h after inoculation, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was tested for cytokine levels, and lung tissues were tested for JAK and STAT mRNA and protein expression, and examined after hematoxylin and eosin staining. Mice infected with the PVL(+) strain became ill, characterized by impaired mobility, hunched posture, ruffled fur, and labored breathing. Lung tissue exhibited tissue necrosis and hemorrhage. BALF levels of IL-8, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-12, sICAM-1, and sVCAM-1 were increased in the rPVL or PVL groups, while levels of IL-10 and IL-4 levels were similar among the groups. JAK1 and STAT1 mRNA expression and protein levels were increased in lung tissue from mice infected with PVL(+) MRSA and rPVL. PVL is a significant S. aureus virulence factor, and upregulates the expression of proinflammatory cytokines but does not affect the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines. The effect of PVL may be due to JAK/STAT pathway activation. Blockade of the JAK/STAT pathway may decrease the severity of PVL(+) MRSA pneumonia.

Pretreatment of nafithromycin attenuates inflammatory response in murine lipopolysaccharide induced acute lung injury

Acute respiratory distress syndrome following an acute lung injury (ALI) is a life threatening inflammatory condition predominantly characterized by vascular protein leakage, neutrophil recruitment and overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines. Pulmonary and systemic bacterial infections are the major cause of ALI wherein the bacterial cell components play a crucial role. Macrolide/ketolide antibiotics are reported to possess immunomodulatory activity; as a result improved survival has been noted in pneumonia patients. Hence immunomodulatory activity of nafithromycin, a novel lactone ketolide antibacterial agent was assessed in the murine LPS induced ALI model. Vehicle, nafithromycin (100 mg/kg), azithromycin (600 mg/kg) and dexamethasone (20 mg/kg) were administered orally, 1 h prior to LPS challenge and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid was collected thereafter at 18, 24 and 48 h to determine the total cell count, total protein, myeloperoxidase (MPO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6. Results from the current study showed that pretreatment with nafithromycin significantly reduced the total cell count, total protein, MPO, TNF-α and IL-6 levels in BAL fluid compared to LPS control group. Histopathological evaluations also suggest significant reduction in neutrophil infiltration by nafithromycin. Dexamethasone, a positive reference standard as expected exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity. The immunomodulatory effect of nafithromycin at dose of 100 mg/kg was comparable to azithromycin dosed at 600 mg/kg. As a result of immunomodulatory activity, nafithromycin is expected to provide additional clinical benefits by resolving the secondary complications associated with severe pneumonia and thereby improving survival in such patients.

Trifolirhizin mitigates ovalbumin-induced lung inflammation and tissue damage in neonatal rats via inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway

Purpose: To investigate the effect of trifolirhizin on neonatal rat model of asthma, and the mechanism of action involved. Methods: Neonatal rats (n = 50) were randomly assigned to 5 groups (10 pups/group): sham, asthma and three treatment groups. With the exception of sham group, the rat pups were sensitized intraperitoneally with ovalbumin (OVA) at a dose of 20 µg/kg on days 7 and 21 postpartum. Rats in the treatment groups received trifolirhizin intragastrically at doses of 2, 4 and 5 mg/kg on day 7 postpartum. Eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were counted using hematological analyzer. Serum immunoglobulin (Ig)E and interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF were determined using their respective enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Messenger RNA (mRNA) expressions of mucin 5AC (Muc5AC), mucin 5B (Muc5B), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were determined using immunohistochemical staining, while the protein expression of inhibitor of nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells alpha (IκBα) was assayed by Western blotting. Results: Serum IgE level was significantly higher in asthma group than in sham group, but was significantly and dose-dependently reduced after treatment with trifolirhizin (p < 0.05). Lung tissue damage was also significantly mitigated in the treatment groups, relative to asthma group (p < 0.05). Trifolirhizin treatment significantly and dose-dependently downregulated the mRNA expressions of Muc5AC, Muc5B, TNF-α and ICAM-1, but upregulated IκBα protein expression significantly and dosedependently (p < 0.05). Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) levels of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 were significantly higher in asthma group, but were significantly and dose-dependently reduced after treatment with trifolirhizin (p < 0.05). Conclusion: These results indicate that trifolirhizin mitigates OVA-induced lung inflammation and tissue damage in neonatal rats via inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathway, thus affording a potential therapeutic strategy for the management of asthma

Eosinophil extracellular traps activate type 2 innate lymphoid cells through stimulating airway epithelium in severe asthma.

Activated eosinophils release extracellular traps (EETs), which contribute to airway inflammation in severe asthma (SA). However, the role of EETs in innate immunity has not yet been completely determined. The present study aimed to demonstrate the mechanism of airway inflammation in SA mediated by EETs. Peripheral counts of EET+ eosinophils and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) were evaluated in patients with SA (n=13), nonsevere asthma (NSA, n=17), and healthy control subjects (HC, n=8). To confirm the effect of EETs, airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and adapted/innate immune responses were assessed in mice. Furthermore, the effects of anti-IL-33/TSLP antibody were tested. The numbers of EET+ eosinophils and ILC2s were significantly elevated in SA, with a positive correlation between these two cells (r=.539, P<.001). When mice were injected with EETs, we observed significant increases in epithelium-derived cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, CXCL-1, CCL24, IL-33, and TSLP) and eosinophil/neutrophil count in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) as well as an increased proportion of IL-5- or IL-13-producing ILC2s in the lungs. When Rag1-/- mice receiving ILC2s were treated with EETs, increased AHR and IL-5/IL-13 levels in BALF were noted, which were effectively suppressed by anti-IL-33 or anti-TSLP antibody. EETs could enhance innate and type 2 immune responses in SA, in which epithelium-targeting biologics (anti-IL-33/TSLP antibody) may have a potential benefit.

Plasma kallikrein contributes to ambient particulate matter-induced lung injury

Particulate matter (PM) is a key component of air pollutants and is associated with mortality of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. PM-induced tissue injury involves inflammation and coagulation. Plasma prekallikrein (pKal), along with coagulation factor XII (FXII) and high-molecular-weight kininogen (HK), form the plasma kallikrein-kinin system (KKS), a component of the innate immune response that generates proinflammatory products in response to injury. When the KKS proteins contact with activation surface such as negatively charged molecules, this system becomes activated. Activated kallikrein (Kal) activates FXII to initiate the intrinsic coagulation pathway, and cleaves HK to release bradykinin to enhance vascular permeability and systemic inflammation. In his study we determined the role of plasma pKal in the PM2.5-induced lung injury. Using TALEN technology, we generated a new mouse strain lacking the gene for pKal. In PM2.5-induced lung injury model, Klkb1−/− mice exhibited a decrease in total protein, cells numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and histologic lung injury score. The TNF-α and IL-6 levels in BALF were significantly decreased in PM2.5-treated Klkb1−/− mice. Plasma thrombin-antithrombin (TAT) complex levels were significantly decreased in PM2.5-treated Klkb1−/− mice. PM2.5 induces pKal activation, HK cleavage and bradykinin production. PM2.5-induced HK cleavage in plasma was completely blocked by a Kal inhibitor, as well as in pKal-deficient plasma. PM2.5 markedly induced thrombin generation in human plasma and wild-type mouse plasma, which was inhibited by both blockade and deficiency of pKal. Taken together, plasma pKal is activated by PM2.5 and the activated Kal plays an important role in PM2.5-induced lung injury.

Using Interleukin 6 and 8 in Blood and Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid to Predict Survival in Hematological Malignancy Patients With Suspected Pulmonary Mold Infection.

Background: Molds and other pathogens induce elevated levels of several cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8. The objective of this study was to investigate the prognostic value of IL-6 and IL-8 as well as fungal biomarkers in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) for overall survival in patients with underlying hematological malignancies and suspected mold infection.Methods: This cohort study included 106 prospectively enrolled adult cases undergoing bronchoscopy. Blood samples were collected within 24 h of BAL sampling and, in a subset of 62 patients, serial blood samples were collected up until 4 days after bronchoscopy. IL-6, IL-8, and other cytokines as well as galactomannan (GM) and β-D-glucan (BDG) were assayed in blood and BAL fluid and associations with overall mortality were assessed at the end of the study using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis.Results: Both blood IL-8 (AUC 0.731) and blood IL-6 (AUC 0.699) as well as BAL IL-6 (AUC 0.763) and BAL IL-8 (AUC 0.700) levels at the time of bronchoscopy were predictors of 30-day all-cause mortality. Increasing blood IL-6 levels between bronchoscopy and day four after bronchoscopy were significantly associated with higher 90-day mortality, with similar findings for increasing IL-8 levels. In ROC analysis the difference of blood IL-8 levels between 4 days after bronchoscopy and the day of bronchoscopy had an AUC of 0.829 (95%CI 0.71–0.95; p < 0.001) for predicting 90-day mortality.Conclusions: Elevated levels of IL-6 and IL-8 in blood or BAL fluid at the time of bronchoscopy, and rising levels in blood 4 days following bronchoscopy were predictive of mortality in these patients with underlying hematological malignancy who underwent bronchoscopy for suspected mold infection.

Inflammatory and functional responses after (bio)diesel exhaust exposure in allergic sensitized mice. A comparison between diesel and biodiesel

Many cities fail to meet air quality standards, which results in increased risk for pulmonary disorders, including asthma. Human and experimental studies have shown that diesel exhaust (DE) particles are associated with worsening of allergic asthma. Biodiesel (BD), a cleaner fuel from renewable sources, was introduced in the eighties. Because of the reduction in particulate matter (PM) emissions, BD was expected to cause fewer adverse pulmonary effects. However, only limited data on the effect of BD emissions in asthma are available. ObjectiveDetermine whether BD exhaust exposure in allergic sensitized mice leads to different effects on inflammatory and functional responses compared to DE exposure. MethodsBalb/C mice were orotracheally sensitized with House Dust Mite (HDM) or a saline solution with 3 weekly instillations. From day 9 until day 17 after sensitization, they were exposed daily to filtered air (FA), DE and BD exhaust (concentration: 600 μg/m3 PM2.5). Lung function, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) cell counts, cytokine levels (IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-17, TNF-α, TSLP) in the BALF, peribronchiolar eosinophils and parenchymal macrophages were measured. ResultsHDM-sensitized animals presented increased lung elastance (p = 0.046), IgG1 serum levels (p = 0.029), peribronchiolar eosinophils (p = 0.028), BALF levels of total cells (p = 0.020), eosinophils (p = 0.028), IL-5 levels (p = 0.002) and TSLP levels (p = 0.046) in BALF. DE exposure alone increased lung elastance (p = 0.000) and BALF IL-4 levels (p = 0.045), whereas BD exposure alone increased BALF TSLP levels (p = 0.004). BD exposure did not influence any parameters after HDM challenge, while DE exposed animals presented increased BALF levels of total cells (p = 0.019), lymphocytes (p = 0.000), neutrophils (p = 0.040), macrophages (p = 0.034), BALF IL-4 levels (p = 0.028), and macrophagic inflammation in the lung tissue (p = 0.037), as well as decreased IgG1 (p = 0.046) and IgG2 (p = 0.043) levels when compared to the HDM group. ConclusionThe results indicate more adverse pulmonary effects of DE compared to BD exposure in allergic sensitized animals.

Gallic acid attenuates allergic airway inflammation via suppressed interleukin-33 and group 2 innate lymphoid cells in ovalbumin-induced asthma in mice.

Asthma is an inflammatory disease characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness. Gallic acid is a powerful anti-inflammatory agent. In this study we aimed to investigate the efficacy of gallic acid in asthma treatment and its mechanisms. An ovalbumin-induced asthma mouse model was generated. Pro-inflammatory cell infiltration and T helper (Th2)-associated cytokine release in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were analyzed to reflect the severity of asthma in mice. An interleukin-33 (IL-33)-induced asthma mouse model was also generated to study the mechanism by which gallic acid could improve asthma. Group 2 lymphoid cells (ILC2s) were identified using flow cytometry. Proteins were detected using Western blotting. Ovalbumin significantly increased the infiltration of pro-inflammatory cells, including eosinophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils, accompanied by enhanced airway hyperesponsiveness. Gallic acid reduced pro-inflammatory cell infiltration and improved airway hyperresponsiveness. Meanwhile, gallic acid reduced IL-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF and decreased expression of IL-33 in the lungs. Mechanistically, gallic acid inhibited MyD88 expression and downregulated nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling to decrease IL-33 expression. Gallic acid can mollify ovalbumin-induced asthma in mice, possibly by inhibiting IL-33-mediated ILC2 activation and subsequent Th2 cytokine release via downregulation of the MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. ©2018 ARSAAOA, LLC.

Methylene Blue Attenuates Lung Injury Induced by Hindlimb Ischemia Reperfusion in Rats.

Objective This study was aimed to investigate the protective effect of methylene blue against lung injury induced by reperfusion of ischemic hindlimb in a rat model. Methods Twenty-four healthy adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were equally randomized into three groups: sham (SM) group, ischemia reperfusion (IR) group, and methylene blue (MB) group. Rats in both IR and MB groups were subjected to 4 h of ischemia by clamping the left femoral artery and then followed by 4 h of reperfusion. Treatment with 1% methylene blue (50 mg/kg) was administrated intraperitoneally at 10 min prior to reperfusion in the MB group. After 4 h of reperfusion, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, myeloperoxidase (MPO), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in lung tissue were detected; inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-6, were measured in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF); correspondingly, the morphological changes and water content in both gastrocnemius muscle and lung samples were evaluated. Results Hindlimb IR caused remarkable morphological abnormalities and edema in both muscle and lung tissues. SOD activity was decreased, both the MPO activity and MDA level in lung tissue, as well as IL-1β and IL-6 levels in BALF, were increased in the IR group (p < 0.05). Compared with the IR group, SOD activity was increased, whereas MPO activity and MDA level in lung tissue and IL-1β and IL-6 levels in BALF were decreased in the MB group (p < 0.05). Also, the histological damage and edema in both lung and muscle tissues were significantly attenuated by the treatment of methylene blue. Conclusion Methylene blue attenuates lung injury induced by hindlimb IR in rats, at least in part, by inhibiting oxidative stress.

GHK Peptide Inhibits Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis in Mice by Suppressing TGFβ1/Smad-Mediated Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition.

Objective: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is an irreversible and progressive fibrotic lung disease that leads to declines in pulmonary function and, eventually, respiratory failure and has no effective treatment. Gly-His-Lys (GHK) is a tripeptide involved in the processes of tissue regeneration and wound healing and has significant inhibitory effects on transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 secretion. The effect of GHK on fibrogenesis in pulmonary fibrosis and the exact underlying mechanism have not been studied previously. Thus, this study investigated the effects of GHK on bleomycin (BLM)-induced fibrosis and identified the pathway that is potentially responsible for these effects.Methods: Intratracheal injections of 3 mg/kg BLM were administered to induce pulmonary fibrosis in C57BL/6 mice. GHK was administered intraperitoneally at doses of 2.6, 26, and 260 μg/ml/day every other day from the 4th to the 21st day after BLM instillation. Three weeks after BLM instillation, pulmonary injury and pulmonary fibrosis was evaluated by the hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and Masson’s trichrome (MT) staining. Chronic inflammation index was used for the histological assessments by two pathologists blindly to each other. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-6 levels in BALF and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in lung extracts were measured. For the pulmonary fibrosis evaluation, the fibrosis index calculated based on MT staining, collagen deposition and active TGF-β1 expression detected by ELISA, and the expression of TGF-β1, α-smooth muscle actin (SMA), fibronectin, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 by western blotting. The epithelial mesenchymal transition index, E-cadherin, and vimentin was also detected by western blot. The statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA and the comparison between different groups were performed.Results: Treatment with GHK at all three doses reduced inflammatory cell infiltration and interstitial thickness and attenuated BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. GHK treatment significantly improved collagen deposition, and MMP-9/TIMP-1 imbalances in lung tissue and also reduced TNF-α, IL-6 expression in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and MPO in lung extracts. Furthermore, GHK reversed BLM-induced increases in TGF-β1, p-Smad2, p-Smad-3 and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) expression.Conclusion: GHK inhibits BLM-induced fibrosis progression, the inflammatory response and EMT via the TGF-β1/Smad 2/3 and IGF-1 pathway. Thus, GHK may be a potential treatment for pulmonary fibrosis.

Peucedanum japonicum extract attenuates allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting Th2 cell activation and production of pro-inflammatory mediators

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe root of Peucedanum japonicum Thunberg is traditionally used to treat coughs, colds, headache and inflammatory diseases in Korea and Japan. Its effects on allergic lung inflammation have not been investigated. Aim of the studyTo investigate the anti-asthmatic effects of Peucedanum japonicum extract (PJE) using a murine model of asthma and a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophage cell line. Materials and methodsMice underwent two rounds of sensitization with ovalbumin 1 week apart followed by four intranasal ovalbumin challenges on days 13–16. The control group received saline only. Two ovalbumin-sensitized groups were orally administered vehicle or PJE (200mg/kg) 5 days a week starting 1 week before the first ovalbumin sensitization. The third group was orally administered the asthma medication Montelukast (10mg/kg) on days 12–16. All animals were sacrificed on day 17. The lungs were assessed for histological features, inflammatory cell infiltration, Th2 cell activation and GATA-binding protein-3 (GATA-3) expression. The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was assessed for type 2 cytokine levels. The effect of PJE on the in vitro Th2 polarization of naïve CD4+ splenocytes and the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines by LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells was evaluated. ResultsPJE treatment inhibited OVA-induced inflammatory cell infiltration, eosinophilia, Th2 activation, and GATA-3 expression in the lung, reduced the interleukin (IL)-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF, down-regulated Th2 activation in vitro, and inhibited the macrophage production of inducible nitric oxide, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, and IL-6. ConclusionPJE attenuated allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting Th2 cell activation and macrophage production of inflammatory mediators. Peucedanum japonicum may be candidate therapy for allergic lung inflammation.

Effects of inhaled corticosteroids on the expression of TNF family molecules in murine model of allergic asthma

ABSTRACTBackground: The tumor necrosis factor superfamily member LIGHT (the official gene symbol approved by NCBI Gene Database), an inflammatory factor secreted by T cells after allergen exposure, recently discovered to play crucial roles in asthmatic airway remodeling. However, it is unclear whether LIGHT could be controlled by inhaled corticosteroids, a key component of asthma management. This study was to investigate the effects and potential mechanisms of inhaled budesonide on the expressions of LIGHT and its receptors (LTβR and HVEM) of lung tissues in ovalbumin-sensitized mice. Materials and Methods: Thirty-three BALB/c mice were randomly divided into the control, asthma model, and budesonide treatment groups (11 in each group). Mice were sensitized and challenged by OVA to develop mouse model of chronic asthma, and treated with aerosolized budesonide before OVA challenge. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lungs were obtained after the final OVA challenge. Protein and mRNA Levels of LIGHT, LTβR, and HVEM in the lungs were investigated by immunohistochemistry, image analysis, and real-time PCR. Expressions of IL-6 and IFN-γ in BALF were measured by ELISA. Results: Inhaled budesonide significantly reduced protein and mRNA levels of lung LIGHT, LTβR, and HVEM in asthmatic mice. Correspondingly, the number of eosinophils and neutrophils and IL-6 levels in BALF after budesonide treatment were found to be decreased, whereas the IFN-γ levels in BALF were increased. Moreover, the expressions of LIGHT and HVEM mRNA showed positive correlation with IL-6 levels in the treatment group. Conclusions: Inhaled budesonide can down-regulate the expressions of LIGHT, LTβR, and HVEM in the lungs of asthmatic mice, and LIGHT/LTβR/HVEM interactions may be a potentially key target for asthma treatment.

Bacterial extract (OM-85) with human-equivalent doses does not inhibit the development of asthma in a murine model

BackgroundOM-85 is an immunostimulant bacterial lysate, which has been proven effective in reducing the number of lower airways infections. We investigated the efficacy of the bacterial lysate OM-85 in the primary prevention of a murine model of asthma. MethodsIn the first phase of our study the animals received doses of 0.5μg, 5μg and 50μg of OM-85 through gavage for five days (days −10 to −6 of the protocol), 10 days prior to starting the sensitisation with ovalbumin (OVA), in order to evaluate the results of dose–response protocols. A single dose (5μg) was then chosen in order to verify in detail the effect of OM-85 on the pulmonary allergic response. Total/differential cells count and cytokine levels (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and IFN-γ) from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), OVA-specific IgE levels from serum, lung function and lung histopathological analysis were evaluated. ResultsOM-85 did not reduce pulmonary eosinophilic response, regardless of the dose used. In the phase protocol using 5μg/animal of OM-85, no difference was shown among the groups studied, including total cell and eosinophil counts in BALF, serum OVA-specific IgE, lung histopathologic findings and lung resistance. However, OM-85 decreased IL-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF. ConclusionsOM-85, administered in early life in mice in human-equivalent doses, does not inhibit the development of allergic pulmonary response in mice.

Phytochemical profiles and inhibitory effects of Tiger Milk mushroom (Lignosus rhinocerus) extract on ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation in a rodent model of asthma.

BackgroundLignosus rhinocerus (L. rhinocerus), which is known locally as Tiger Milk mushroom, is traditionally used in the treatment of asthma by indigenous communities in Malaysia. However, to date, its efficacy on asthma has not been confirmed by scientific studies and there is also sparse information available on its active constituents. In this study, the volatile constituent of L. rhinocerus hot water extract was investigated using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The potential effects of L. rhinocerus extract for anti-asthmatic activity was further investigated on ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized asthmatic Sprague Dawley rats.MethodsSequential extraction using five solvents (petroleum ether, diethyl ether, hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol) was conducted prior to GC-MS analysis. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into the following four groups of five animals each: 1) normal rats, 2) sensitization plus OVA-challenged rats 3) sensitization plus OVA-challenged with L. rhinocerus treatment and 4) sensitization plus OVA-challenged with dexamethasone treatment. The levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in the serum and T-helper 2 cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13, in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), as well as eosinophil infiltration in the lungs, were investigated.ResultsGC-MS analysis revealed the presence of five main groups (alkane, fatty acids, benzene, phenol and dicarboxylic acid) with a total of 18 constituents. Linoleic acid (21.35 %), octadecane (11.82 %) and 2,3-dihydroxypropyl elaidate (10.47 %) were present in high amounts. The extract significantly ameliorated the increase in total IgE in serum and IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF and also effectively suppressed eosinophils numbers in BALF while attenuating eosinophil infiltrations in the lungs.ConclusionL. rhinocerus hot water extract has the potential to be used as an alternative for the treatment of acute asthma.

TNF-α enhance Th2 and Th17 immune responses regulating by IL23 during sensitization in asthma model

BackgroundTNF-α has been postulated to be a critical mediator contributing to airway inflammation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of TNF-α in the induction of Th17 and Th2 cells related to asthma pathogenesis. ObjectiveTo evaluate detailed mechanisms for the modulation of IL-23 by TNF-α in sensitization period. MethodsDuring sensitization period, 10μg of rat anti-mouse TNF-α mAb was intravenously administrated one hour before the application of OVA and 0.1μg of LPS. To see the relation between TNF-α and associated effectors cytokine, we replenished TNF-α KO mice with IL-23 during sensitization period. To assess cellular resources, CD11c+ cells isolated from lung tissue after sensitization were treated with anti-TNF-α Ab. ResultsTreatment of anti-TNF-α mAb during sensitization period significantly reduced airway eosinophilia, serum OVA-specific IgE levels and methacholine AHR compared to isotype Ab. Anti-TNF-α mAb treated mice showed significant reduction in the levels of IL-23 after sensitization in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) as well as IL-17A, IL-4 levels in BALF after challenge compared with isotype Ab treated mice. Supplementation of IL-23 in TNF-α KO mice resulted in complete restoration of eosinophilic airway inflammation, AHR, and IL-17A and IL-4 expression in CD4+ T cells. Anti-TNF-α mAb treatment after sensitization significantly diminished the population of IL-23p19-secreting CD11c+ cells in lung. ConclusionTNF-α plays an important role in the development of airway inflammation by enhancing IL-23/Th17 and Th2 immune responses.