Broadleaved Woodland Research Articles

Impacts of different vegetation in riparian buffer strips on runoff and sediment loss.

Buffer strips continue to feature in the management of agricultural runoff and water pollution in many countries. Existing research has explored their efficacy for reducing environmental problems in different geoclimatic settings but, the evidence on the efficacy of different vegetation treatments is less abundant than that for other buffer strip characteristics, including width, and is more contradictory in nature. With policy targets for various environmental outcomes including water or air quality and net zero pointing to the need for conversion of agricultural land, the need for robust experimental evidence on the relative benefits of different vegetation types in buffer strips is now renewed. Our experiment used a replicated plot scale facility to compare the efficacy of 12 m wide buffer strips for controlling runoff and suspended sediment loss during 15 sampled storms spanning 2017-2020. The buffer strips comprised three vegetation treatments: a deep rooting grass (Festulolium cv. Prior), a short rotation coppice willow and native broadleaved woodland trees. Over the duration of the monitoring period, reductions in total runoff, compared with the experimental control, were in the order: willow buffer strips (49%); deciduous woodland buffer strips (46%); grass buffer strips (33%). The corresponding reductions in suspended sediment loss, relative to the experimental control, were ordered: willow buffer strips (44%) > deciduous woodland buffer strips (30%) > grass buffer strips (29%). Given the 3-year duration of our new dataset, our results should be seen as providing evidence on the impacts during the establishment phase of the treatments.

Late Glacial and Holocene vegetational and climate changes and their impact on material cultures in the Crimean Mountains (founded on pollen data from cave deposits)

Pollen data has been obtained from archaeological horizons in cave and rock shelter deposits, on the high plateaux (the Yaila) and the slopes of the Crimean Mountains. This data, supported by geochronometry and lithology, indicate multiple environmental oscillations during the Late Glacial and Holocene. These had a significant impact on changes in the Final Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Pollen assemblages from Late Glacial deposits indicate the existence during the last glacial of refugia of a broad-leaved flora on the lower mountain slopes. During the Late Glacial interstadials, the tribes of the Shan-Koba culture hunted forest game indicative of a temperate climate. From the Younger Dryas into the Greenlandian (11,500–10,300 cal BP) the Swiderian hunters were visitors to the treeless Crimean yailas from the northern Ukraine. During the Greenlandian, two warm and humid phases, when the forests extended, alternated with cool and arid phases when the woodland shrank and xeric herbs became important in the yailas. The Shpan culture that existed later during the Greenlandian (between c. 10,600 and 9100 cal BP) was influenced by migrations of steppe hunters from the Crimean plain area, and they hunted game that included more animals of open ecotopes. During the end of Greenlandian and the beginning of Northgrippian (9000–7500 cal BP), broad-leaved woodlands appeared at the yaila edges, with such warmth-loving species as Rhus coronaria, Cornus mas and Hedera taurica, and mesophytic steppe occupied the yailas. The tribes of the Late Mesolithic Murzak-Koba culture and the Neolithic Tash-Air culture were hunters of the game living in the broad-leaved forests, particularly wild pig. Nevertheless, the Tash-Air tribes continue to exist during a cool and arid phase after 7500 cal BP. The second half of the Meghalayan (since 2600 BP) had a humid climate: they were times showing a larger extension than before of pine and juniper onto the yaila, though an arid phase occurred at 2900-2600 cal BP. After 1000 BP, broad-leaved trees almost completely disappeared near the yaila and ferns spread enormously (due to the impact of cold winters in the Little Ice Age or to forest clearance). The role of arboreal vegetation and broad-leaves trees, as well as xeric herbs, changed cyclically during different phases of the Late Glacial and Holocene on the yailas, but mesophytic steppe always remained the dominating vegetation type there.

Moth biomass and diversity in coniferous plantation woodlands

Moths are a vital ecosystem component and key food source for many species, but have shown widespread and often severe declines. Multiple factors have been implicated in these declines, although the most important large-scale factors in the temperate zone are considered to be land use change and climate change. The majority of forest cover in the U.K. and elsewhere in Europe is dominated by intensively managed plantation woodlands, and studies have shown reduced broadleaved woodland cover can negatively affect moth diversity and biomass. However, few studies have examined how open habitats within the plantation forest matrix, which often represent a large proportion of the total forest area, are utilised by moth species. Here, we aimed to determine: (1) how moth biomass in open habitats within plantation forests varies seasonally and in response to management; and (2) how species diversity and Welsh conservation priority (“Section 7”) species respond to management at multiple spatial scales. We sampled moth communities in open habitats within five coniferous plantation forests across Wales, using light traps deployed in areas that ranged from < 1 to > 20 years post-felling. We found a significant non-linear relationship between space, time and moth biomass, with a significant peak in biomass in the summer months (∼29th June) suggesting important phenological effects with associated implications for dependent species. Biomass was also strongly affected by time since felling, with older habitats in general supporting a higher moth biomass, although this was dependent on the seasonal variation in habitat ‘greenness’ and productivity, as measured by NDVI. We also found that the abundances of Welsh priority species responded positively to increased extents of open habitats of ages 1–10 years post felling, but the amount of recent clear felling (0 years post felling) in the surrounding landscape had a negative correlation with both abundance and diversity. We conclude that habitat, seasonality/ productivity and short-term weather variations play a key role in determining moth biomass, species diversity and the presence of Welsh priority moth species within managed coniferous plantation woodland. This means there is an opportunity for forest management practices to adopt measures that can not only enhance moth biomass productivity, in turn supporting insectivorous species such as European nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus, but also deliver wider ecosystem services through the provision of habitat matrices that support invertebrate species of conservation concern.

Inferring the ancientness of the Mirambel woodland from soil charcoal: A local exception to the regional pattern of the Millevaches plateau (Limousin, Massif Central, France)

The Mirambel woodland on the margins of the Millevaches plateau (Massif Central) is one of the few ancient broad-leaved woodlands in France. Historical sources show that it has occupied the same surface area for the past 250 years, despite being in a region that underwent considerable anthropogenic changes during this period. We explored the Mirambel's Holocene history and ancientness by means of soil charcoal analysis, chosen because of its high accuracy on a local scale. We excavated five pedoanthracological pits in the woodland and its open marginal spaces. The 29 radiocarbon dates ranged from the Atlantic (8700–5500 cal yr BP) – Subboreal transition to the Subboreal (5500–2800 cal yr BP) and Subatlantic (2800–0 cal yr BP, i.e. AD 1950) periods, revealing the existence of fire events corresponding to six contemporaneous cultural periods: Neolithic (ca. 3877–2991 cal yr BC), Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition (ca. 2528–2525 cal yr BC), Protohistory (ca. 147 cal yr BC), Roman period (AD 326–579), Middle Ages (AD 732–1187), and contemporary times (AD 1781 to present day). Three Tilia charcoal fragments dating from ca. 3717–2919 cal yr BC indicated the presence of a diversified Mid-Holocene deciduous woodland featuring Tilia and Acer nowadays-absent taxa in this area. Deciduous Quercus and Fagus sylvatica dominated most of the soil profiles, as they do nowadays in the woodlands. Other taxa (Salix, Corylus avellana, Betula) were identified, as well as in the current vegetation. The occurrence of Cytisus-type (Fabaceae) and Calluna vulgaris suggested that there were forest clearing phases at all the points sampled. Widely varying levels of abundances may reflect differences in the duration of these open phases.

A framework for integrating the terrestrial carbon stock of estates in institutional carbon management plans

AbstractMany institutions have substantial landholdings, but few consider soil carbon preservation and augmentation in their carbon management plans. A methodical framework was developed to analyse terrestrial carbon stocks (soil and tree biomass) for credible carbon offsetting strategies in institutional land. This approach was demonstrated at two farms (805 hectares) managed by Newcastle University. Soil carbon for three depths (0–30 cm, 30–60 cm and 60–90 cm) and above‐ground tree biomass were quantified. These data provided a terrestrial carbon baseline to evaluate future land management options and effects. Historical land‐use records enabled the following comparisons: (1) agricultural land vs. woodland; (2) arable land vs. permanent grassland; (3) organic vs. conventional farming; (4) coniferous vs. broadleaved woodland; and (5) recent vs. long‐established woodland. Carbon storage (kg/m2) varied with land usage and woodland type and age, but only agricultural land vs. woodland, and for agriculture, arable land vs. permanent grassland, significantly affected the 0–90 cm soil carbon. At the university‐managed farms, current terrestrial carbon stocks were 103,620 tonnes in total (98,050 tonnes from the 0–90 cm soil and 5,569 tonnes from tree biomass). These terrestrial carbon stocks were equivalent to sixteen years of the current carbon emissions of Newcastle University (6,406 tonnes CO2 equivalents‐C per year). Using strategies for alternative land management, Newcastle University could over 40 years offset up to 3,221 tonnes of carbon per year, or 50% of its carbon emissions at the current rate. The methodological framework developed in this study will enable institutions having large landholdings to rationally consider their estates in future soil carbon management schemes.

Epiphytic lichens of woodland habitats in the lower Ticino river valley and in the “Bosco Siro Negri” Integral Nature State Reserve (NW Italy)

Epiphytic lichens were surveyed in the “Bosco Siro Negri” Integral Nature State Reserve (province of Pavia, Lombardy, NW Italy), which hosts a well-preserved fragment of oak-elm floodplain forest (Natura 2000 Habitat 91F0). The core woodland fragment hosted only four species on the tree boles, i.e. Lepraria finkii plus the forest specialists Coenogonium pineti, Diarthonis spadicea, and Opegrapha vermicellifera. An additional eight nitro- and photophytic species were recorded on the highest twigs of the canopy. The whole Reserve, including the neighbouring degraded woodlands and poplar plantations, hosted 27 epiphytic lichen taxa. The lower Ticino River valley between Vigevano and Pavia, in which the Reserve is located, was surveyed for epiphytic lichens in an additional 45 sites, including 15 wellpreserved oak-elm/hornbeam woodlands (Habitat 91F0), 15 degraded broadleaved woodlands with high occurrence of black locust and 15 poplar plantations. Overall, 32 species were recorded. Well-preserved woodlands had a lower species richness, but they hosted forest specialists not occurring in the other two habitats. Graphis pulverulenta and Lecania cyrtellina are new to Lombardy. Anisomeridium polypori, Diarthonis spadicea, Lecanora expallens and Pseudoschismatomma rufescens are reported from Lombardy for the second time.

Geo-ecological insights on the island of Inchcailloch in Loch Lomond, Scotland: a small serpentine outcrop in a mixed geological setting

Inchcailloch hosts a small serpentine (ultramafic) site in Loch Lomond that is unusual in the Scottish context in being covered with broad-leaved woodland; along with serpentinite, serpentine breccias and sandstones are also found. In order to look at plant-soil relationships in more detail here, I analysed soil and foliar chemistry from sampling locations on and around the ultramafic outcrop. Soils situated directly on the outcrop had elevated concentrations of metals such as Co, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni and Zn and a lower Ca-to-Mg ratio. Foliar elemental composition was influenced more by species than sampling location although some metals (Ni and Mn) were at greater concentrations in plants on the ultramafic outcrop. Foxgloves (Digitalis purpurea) had the highest foliar Ni concentration as well as Al and Zn, indicating an ability to accumulate multiple metals. Overall, the high Ca-to-Mg ratio indicating the calcareous nature of the soils due to mixing of soils from contrasting geologies, the low metal concentrations, and the high soil P are all considered to act together to prevent this site from exhibiting some of the more extreme features, such as skeletal soils and sparse vegetation cover, found at other Scottish serpentine sites.

Annual abundance of common Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) is negatively associated with second generation anticoagulant rodenticides

Rats and mice can damage food and agricultural products as well as transmit diseases, thereby requiring control of their numbers. Application of Second Generation Anticoagulant Rodenticides (SGARs) often reduces rodent numbers locally. However, predators eating rodents, including non-target species, that have consumed SGARs may be secondarily exposed and potentially lethally poisoned. Here we study whether SGARs may have contributed to the widespread population declines of a rodent-eating raptor, the Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in the UK. We show that 161 (66.8%) of the 241 Kestrels submitted for ecotoxicology tests between 1997 and 2012 had detectable levels of at least one SGAR in their livers. Adult Kestrels had significantly higher prevalence of SGARs than juveniles, suggesting accumulation of SGARs through time. The prevalence and concentrations of individual SGARs in Kestrels were significantly higher in England than in Scotland. SGAR prevalence in Kestrels were positively associated with some land cover types, primarily arable cereals and broad-leaved woodland, and negatively associated with mainly mean elevation, probably reflecting variation in SGAR usage across land cover types. By using volunteer-collected data on national Kestrel abundance 1997–2012, we show that there is a negative correlation between the Kestrel population index in a specific year and the concentration of bromadialone as well as the total SGAR concentration in the same year. Although correlative, this is the first study to provide evidence for a potential population-limiting effect of SGARs on a raptor.

Colonisation of farmland deciduous plantations by woodland ground flora

ABSTRACT Newly planted broadleaved woodlands under agri-environment schemes lack floral diversity. The dispersal range and colonisation rates of herbaceous ground flora in thirty newly planted broadleaved woodlands in Northern Ireland were investigated during spring and early summer (2017). The colonisation rates of 14 species conventionally recognised as Ancient Woodland Indicator Species (AWIS) and Woodland Indicator Species (WIS) together with Lesser Celandine were assessed and the maximum dispersal distances from potential source populations was measured. The study found that the nine selected AWIS colonise new habitats significantly more slowly (p < 0.001) than the four woodland study species and colonisation rates corresponded approximately to the classifications AWIS and WIS. The effect of twelve selected habitat variables on species colonisation rates revealed that greater species dispersal range was associated with the management of the sources both within and bordering to the newly planted broadleaved woodlands. Ensuring connectivity to mature deciduous woodlands with an integrated, riparian zone together with a mosaic of inter-connected, species-rich hedges increased species dispersal. These results suggest succession from grassland into woodland only begins with the planting of trees. Colonisation of woodland plant species should be a key objective of establishing newly planted broadleaved woodlands within farmland afforestation schemes and should be facilitated by active management practices.

The effects of thinning management on bats and their insect prey in temperate broadleaved woodland

Trees, woods, forests and associated biodiversity are being affected by anthropogenic climate breakdown, and need management to maintain delivery of a wide range of ecosystem services. Wood harvested from sustainably managed woodlands can be used to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through carbon substitution, directly using biomass for bioenergy to replace fossil fuels or indirectly through the use of wood products instead of higher carbon footprint materials such as concrete and steel. However, it is also important to understand how managing woodlands to mitigate climate change affects biodiversity.We tested the hypotheses that thinning woodland benefits bats and their insect prey by measuring bat species/species group richness and activity, and insect species/species group richness and biomass in 27 pairs of managed and under-managed broadleaved woodlands, and explored temporal responses to time since management. Sixteen woodland characteristics were measured to investigate how management affected woodlands, and to assess the relative importance of these characteristics to bats and their insect prey.Woodland thinning significantly reduced five woodland characteristics known to be important for woodland-dwelling bats. Standing dead trees were three times more abundant, and tree cavities five times more frequent in under-managed woodland compared with managed paired sites.Woodland thinning significantly increased bat richness and activity. Common and adaptable bat species, and those that forage along woodland edges (e.g. Pipistrellus pipistrellus), were positively affected by management, presumably exploiting less cluttered woodland interiors. Rarer bat species, and species that roost predominantly in trees (e.g. Barbastella barbastellus) were negatively affected by management, which reduced roosting opportunities. Overall bat activity and species richness were relatively low in woodland that had not been thinned for 30 years before increasing. Insect biomass peaked after 30 years of no thinning.We recommend minimum intervention management to conserve rare bat species in woodlands, although common and adaptable bat species may benefit from intermediate to heavy thinning. Sustainably thinned woodland could be greatly improved for all bats by retaining or mimicking habitat characteristics that are more representative of old growth woodland such as (i) standing dead trees, (ii) tree cavities, (iii) heterogeneous canopy architecture, and (iv) an overall uncluttered below-canopy vegetation with pockets of densely cluttered shrubs.

Vegetation changes in the Hotyn Upland over the last 2000 years (based on pollen data)

Pollen study of two soil sections, located in two different relief positions (the gully bottom at Sadgora 1 and the upper part of a slope at Ridkivtsi I) enables us to show vegetational and climatic changes in the Bukovyna area (the Chernivtsi region) during the last 2000 years (the end of the Early Subatlantic, the Middle and Late Subatlantic). The reconstructions of past vegetation are based on the analyses of pollen surface samples, taken from the soils of different ecotops in the sites’ vicinity. The reconstructed short-period phases of environmental change correspond well with those established in other areas. These are the end of the “Roman warm period” (before the 14C date of 1.74 ka BP), with the humid climate; the relatively dry “Dark Ages cool period” (before the 14C date of 1.19 ka BP); the wet “Medieval warm period”; the cool “Little Ice Age” (with its wetter beginning and drier ending) and the modern warm phase (the last 150 years).Centennial environmental changes − the cooling within the Medieval Warming (XI cent.) and the warming within the “Little Ice Age” (XV cent.) – have been detected. Human impact on the vegetation can be demonstrated – forest clearance (with the presence of particles of microscopic charcoal and pollen of pyrophitic plants), the introduction of thermophilous walnut during warm periods, and the appearance of pasture lands in the place of former fern patches and woods during the “Little Ice Age”, and the last warm phase (with the presence of pollen of pastoral synanthropic plants). In the last 2000 years, broad-leaved woodland, dominated by hornbeam, grew extensively near Sadgora and Ridkivtsi only during the “Medieval Warm Period”.

Neoboletusantillanus sp. nov. (Boletaceae), first report of a red-pored bolete from the Dominican Republic and insights on the genus Neoboletus.

Neoboletusantillanussp. nov. appears to be the only red-pored bolete known from the Dominican Republic to date. It is reported as a novel species to science based on collections gathered in a neotropical lowland mixed broadleaved woodland. A detailed morphological description, color images of fresh basidiomes in habitat and line drawings of the main anatomical features are provided and relationships with phylogenetically and phenotypically similar taxa are discussed. Three genomic regions (nrITS, nrLSU/28S and rpb2) have been sequenced in order to reinforce the recognition of the new species and to elucidate its taxonomic affiliation within Neoboletus.

Biodiversity conservation effectiveness provided by a protection status in temperate forest commons of north Spain

The establishment and maintenance of protected areas is the backbone of global conservation strategies to halt biodiversity loss. However, despite the more than 200,000 legally designated protected sites worldwide, the rate of species extinction has not decreased, for which some debate the real effectiveness of protected areas to preserve biodiversity. Using data from tropical areas, many studies have attempted to test the effectiveness of protected areas by comparing species richness in protected and neighbouring unprotected sites, without reaching a consensus. Here, we extend this line of research with data from temperate deciduous forests inside and outside Picos de Europa National Park and Biosphere Reserve (N Spain). Specifically we compare data from mixed broadleaved woodlands, beech forests (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica Willd.) forests. We conducted botanical inventories and recorded ecological data from 25 0.2-ha concentric plots distributed in forest commons inside the reserve and from other 25 similar plots established in neighbouring not protected forest commons. Data were used to construct a set of ecological indicators and evaluated using modelling methods. We found no significant differences in species composition between plots in protected and non-protected forest commons, likely due to the similar management criteria applied in both land uses. We found less active management outside the protected area, which helps to maintain stands in a semi-natural state. In contrast, we observed the presence of silvicultural treatments inside the protected area, although these treatments were non-intensive, promoting vegetation composition associated to late-successional ecosystems. We only detected significant differences between plots inside and outside the protected area when relation between species richness was analysed with reference to forest habitat type. Precisely, plots of beech forests inside Picos de Europa were more homogenous than plots outside the protected area, which may indicate that management practices inside the protected area do not favour tree species diversity. Non-intensive silviculture management in beech forests inside Picos de Europa seems to promote the presence of the dominant tree species Fagus sylvatica L., which in the absence of perturbations is characterized by conforming monospecific vegetation communities. Overall, our results do not support the idea that protected areas hold more biodiversity than surrounding forest commons. Conservation treatments applied in protected areas should promote the presence of species associated to disturbances, particularly in stands tending to homogeneous species composition at late-successional stages, as this may enhance their resilience under the current rapid global changes.

Ground-based and LiDAR-derived measurements reveal scale-dependent selection of roost characteristics by the rare tree-dwelling bat Barbastella barbastellus

Abstract Bats use roosts for protection, sociality and reproduction. Lack of knowledge regarding the specific roost preferences of tree-dwelling bats means that roosts are regularly removed from woodland during felling and thinning interventions, even when woodlands are managed to promote biodiversity. The often-unintentional loss of roosts this way continues to constrain efforts to conserve many rare bat species. We investigated roost selection by the barbastelle Barbastella barbastellus in fragmented oak woodlands in southwest England. Twenty-nine bats were radio tracked to 44 tree roosts between 2007 and 2015. Twenty-four different characteristics of roosts were measured using a combination of ground-based field surveys and airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) imagery, and roost characteristics were compared with those of random trees to determine selection. Bats selected trees in ancient semi-natural broadleaved woodland over other woodland habitat types. Standing dead oak (Quercus spp.), while scarce, was positively selected over other tree types and supported significantly more suitable roost cavities. Roost selection was most strongly influenced by the number of cavities present on a tree and the openness of the canopy around the tree. The height of roost cavities and distance to water were also important features that influenced selection. Pregnant and lactating bats switched roosts less frequently than post-lactating and nulliparous bats and selected cavities higher on trees, most likely to facilitate the development of offspring and reduce the risk of predation. Old growth woodland is vitally important to barbastelles and so the preservation and restoration of these habitats should be a conservation priority. While standing dead trees supported more preferred roost cavities than other tree types, our findings indicate that any tree supporting a suitable cavity may be used as a roost, irrespective of the size, condition or species, and should be retained wherever possible. Promoting the natural succession of younger woodland will help to deliver additional sustained benefits in the future.

The influence of thinning intensity and bramble control on ground flora development in a mixed broadleaved woodland

The influence of thinning intensity and bramble control on ground flora development in a mixed broadleaved woodland

Riparian responses to extreme climate and land-use change scenarios

Climate change will induce alterations in the hydrological and landscape patterns with effects on riparian ecotones. In this study we assess the combined effect of an extreme climate and land-use change scenario on riparian woody structure and how this will translate into a future risk of riparian functionality loss. The study was conducted in the Tâmega catchment of the Douro basin. Boosted Regression Trees (BRTs) were used to model two riparian landscape indicators related with the degree of connectivity (Mean Width) and complexity (Area Weighted Mean Patch Fractal Dimension). Riparian data were extracted by planimetric analysis of high spatial-resolution Word Imagery Layer (ESRI). Hydrological, climatic and land-use variables were obtained from available datasets and generated with process-based modeling using current climate data (2008–2014), while also considering the high-end RCP8.5 climate-change and “Icarus” socio-economic scenarios for the 2046–2065 time slice. Our results show that hydrological and land-use changes strongly influence future projections of riparian connectivity and complexity, albeit to diverse degrees and with differing effects. A harsh reduction in average flows may impair riparian zones while an increase in extreme rain events may benefit connectivity by promoting hydrologic dynamics with the surrounding floodplains. The expected increase in broad-leaved woodlands and mixed forests may enhance the riparian galleries by reducing the agricultural pressure on the area in the vicinity of the river. According to our results, 63% of river segments in the Tâmega basin exhibited a moderate risk of functionality loss, 16% a high risk, and 21% no risk. Weaknesses and strengths of the method are highlighted and results are discussed based on a resilience perspective with regard to riparian ecosystems.

Retrieval of three-dimensional tree canopy and shade using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) data to analyze the cooling effect of vegetation

Urban warming has become a serious problem due to global warming and rapid urbanization. One important phenomenon is the increasing urban heat island (UHI) effect, which has a serious negative impact on energy consumption, environmental pollution, and human well-being. Trees lower land surface and air temperatures by providing shade and through the process of evapotranspiration and therefore are useful in effectively mitigating the UHI effect. The cooling effects of trees vary depending on the tree crown size and density and the optical properties of their leaves. Selection of the best species to plant is important in achieving effective mitigation of the UHI effect. In this research, we examined four woodlands. Three of these woodlands are dominated by species (Cinnamomum camphora, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, Magnolia grandiflora) that are frequently planted in Nanjing, China and one is a mixed woodland. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was employed to detail the vegetation canopy structure and capture the volume of three-dimensional point clouds of the leaves (L_V3DPC), as well as the shade at each case study site. Meteorological parameters were measured at each site. Statistical analysis was used to assess the cooling effects of the different woodlands and their impacts. This research revealed that trees can influence the microclimate beneath their canopies and that the degree of the impact is different for different tree species. Statistical analyses showed that the woodlands studied exhibit obvious temperature reductions during the daytime (05:00–19:30) and weaker temperature reductions during the nighttime (19:30–05:00). The temperature reduction was greatest for M. glyptostroboides, followed by C. camphora, M. grandiflora, and the trees in the mixed broad-leaved woodland. These results indicate that small-leaved species tend to be more effective at cooling than large-leaved species. Comparisons of the Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Sky View Factor (SVF) with L_V3DPC and shade, respectively, show that L_V3DPC and shade better reflect the impact of the vegetation canopy on the cooling effect. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that shading by trees is of prime importance in cooling the thermal environment. The high significance of L_V3DPC and shade indicate that the tree canopy is a major component of the contribution of trees to microclimatic environments, particularly the cooling effect under the tree canopy. This paper presents an innovative technique for determining tree canopy shade using TLS data for the purpose of analyzing the cooling effect of trees. The findings can be used as a guide to aid in the selection of the best species for urban greenspace planning and design to cool the thermal environment and enhance energy savings in urban environments.

A comparison of clearfelling and gradual thinning of plantations for the restoration of insect herbivores and woodland plants

Summary Testing restoration methods is essential for the development of restoration ecology as a science. It is also important to monitor a range of taxa, not just plants which have been the traditional focus of restoration ecology. Here, we compare the effects on ground flora and leaf‐miners, of two restoration practices used when restoring conifer plantations. Two methods of restoration were investigated: clearfelling of plantations and the gradual thinning of conifers over time. Unrestored plantations and native broadleaved woodlands were also surveyed, these representing the starting point of restoration and the reference community, respectively. The study sites consist of two forest types (acidic Quercus woodland and mesotrophic Fraxinus woodland) enabling us to compare the two restoration methods in different habitat types. We use a well‐replicated, large‐scale study system consisting of 32 woodland plots, each 2 ha in size. There were 179 plant species identified in the plots. Clearfelled plots had greater overall ground flora species richness than other management regimes (thinned, unrestored plantation and native woodland), but the richness of woodland plant species did not differ between clearfelled, thinned, native woodland and unrestored plantation plots. More than 10 000 leaf‐miners comprising 122 species were collected. Increased plant species richness was associated with increased leaf‐miner species richness under all management regimes except clearfelled plots. Forest type did not affect the response to restoration method; that is, there was no interaction between management regime and forest type for any of the variables measured. Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that both the clearfelling and gradual thinning approaches to plantation restoration maintain woodland ground flora species. Either method can be used without detriment to woodland ground flora species richness. However, these methods differed in their effects on the leaf‐miner–plant species richness relationship. If increasing invertebrate herbivore species richness is a concern, the gradual thinning approach is more appropriate.

Breeding season habitat associations and population declines of British Hawfinches Coccothraustes coccothraustes

Capsule At both landscape and local scales, breeding persistence in a declining Hawfinch population was greatest where broadleaved woodland cover was high, while at a fine scale, nest sites were associated with openings in the woodland canopy.Aims To assess which components of habitat are associated with Hawfinch occupancy at landscape (10-km), local (tetrad) and fine (nest) spatial scales, during a period of population decline and range contraction.Methods Bird Atlas 2008–11 data were used to determine areas of Hawfinch loss and persistence over 20 years. Current habitat was measured and compared to look for correlates that helped explain the differing status at both 10-km and tetrad scales. Fine scale habitat data collected at nest sites were compared with random locations to investigate within-wood nest site selection.Results At both 10-km and tetrad scales, Hawfinch persistence is more likely where woodland cover is greater. Recent woodland management was less evident in tetrads where the species persisted. At the nest site scale, the only relationship detected was for nests to be close to canopy openings.Conclusions Maintaining and increasing broadleaved woodland area is likely to benefit Hawfinch. Within woods, maintenance and creation of open areas may enhance nesting opportunities.

Characteristic pollen source area and vertical pollen dispersal and deposition in a mixed coniferous and deciduous broad-leaved woodland in the Changbai mountains, northeast China

Pollen influx (number of pollen grains cm−2 year−1) can objectively reflect the dispersal and deposition features of pollen within a certain time and space, and is often used as a basis for the quantitative reconstruction of palaeovegetation; however, little is known about the features and mechanisms of vertical dispersal of pollen. Here we present the results from a 5 year (2006–2010) monitoring program using pollen traps placed at different heights from ground level up to 60 m and surface soil samples in a mixed coniferous and deciduous broad-leaved woodland in the Changbai mountains, northeastern China. The pollen percentages and pollen influx from the traps have very similar characteristics to the highest values for Betula, Fraxinus, Quercus and Pinus, among the tree taxa and Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae and Asteraceae among the herb taxa. Pollen influx values vary significantly with height and show major differences between three distinct layers, above-canopy (≥32 m), within the trunk layer (8 ≤ 32 m) and on the ground (0 m). These differences in pollen influx are explained by differences in (i) the air flows in each of these layers and (ii) the fall speed of pollen of the various taxa. We found that the pollen recorded on the ground surface is a good representation of the major part of the pollen transported in the trunk space of the woodland. Comparison of the pollen influx values with the theoretical, calculated “characteristic pollen source area” (CPSA) of 12 selected taxa indicates that the pollen deposited on the ground surface of the woodland is a fair representation with 85–90 % of the total pollen deposited at a wind speed of 2.4 m s−1 coming from within ca. 1–5 km for Pinus and Quercus, ca. 5–10 km for Ulmus, Tilia, Oleaceae and Betula, ca. 20–40 km for Fraxinus, Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Populus and Salix, and ca. 30–60 km for Artemisia; it is also a good representation with 90–98 % of the total pollen deposited coming from within 60 km at a wind speed of 2.4 m s−1, or 100 km at a wind speed: 6 m s−1, for the 12 selected taxa used in the CPSA calculation. Furthermore, comparison with the vegetation map of the area around the sampling site shows that the pollen deposited on the ground represents all plant communities which grow in the study area within 70 km radius of the sampling site. In this study, the pollen percentages obtained from the soil surface samples are significantly biased towards pollen taxa with good preservation due to thick and robust pollen walls. Therefore, if mosses are available instead, soil samples should be avoided for pollen studies, in particular for the study of pollen-vegetation relationships, the estimation of pollen productivities and quantitative reconstruction of past vegetation. The results also indicate that the existing model of pollen dispersal and deposition, Prentice’s model, provides a fair description of the actual pollen dispersal and deposition in this kind of woodland, which suggests that the application of the landscape reconstruction algorithm would be relevant for reconstruction of this type of woodland in the past.