Broadband Ground Motion Simulation Research Articles

Broadband Ground-Motion Simulations with Machine-Learning-Based High-Frequency Waves from Fourier Neural Operators

ABSTRACT Seismic hazards analysis relies on accurate estimation of expected ground motions for potential future earthquakes. However, obtaining realistic and robust ground-motion estimates for specific combinations of earthquake magnitudes, source-to-site distances, and site conditions is still challenging due to the limited empirical data. Seismic hazard analysis also benefits from the simulation of ground-motion time histories, whereby physics-based simulations provide reliable time histories but are restricted to a lower frequency for computational reasons and missing information on small-scale earthquake-source and Earth-structure properties that govern high-frequency (HF) seismic waves. In this study, we use densely recorded acceleration broadband (BB) waveforms to develop a machine-learning (ML) model for estimating HF ground-motion time histories from their low-frequency (LF) counterparts based on Fourier Neural Operators (FNOs) and Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs). Our approach involves two separate FNO models to estimate the time and frequency properties of ground motions. In the time domain, we establish a relationship between normalized low-pass filtered and BB waveforms, whereas in the frequency domain, the HF spectrum is trained based on the LF spectrum. These are then combined to generate BB ground motions. We also consider seismological and site-specific factors during the training process to enhance the accuracy of the predictions. We train and validate our models using ground-motion data recorded over a 20 yr period at 18 stations in the Ibaraki province, Japan, considering earthquakes in the magnitude range M 4–7. Based on goodness-of-fit measures, we demonstrate that our simulated time series closely matches recorded observations. To address the ground-motion variability, we employ a conditioned GAN approach. Finally, we compare our results with several alternative approaches for ground-motion simulation (stochastic, hybrid, and ML-based) to highlight the advantages and improvements of our method.

Erratum to The 3D Physics-Based Broadband Ground-Motion Simulation, including Topography Effects Causing Damage to Structures, for the 2022 Mw 6.6 Menyuan, China, Earthquake

<i>Erratum to</i> The 3D Physics-Based Broadband Ground-Motion Simulation, including Topography Effects Causing Damage to Structures, for the 2022 Mw 6.6 Menyuan, China, Earthquake

The 3D Physics-Based Broadband Ground-Motion Simulation, including Topography Effects Causing Damage to Structures, for the 2022 Mw 6.6 Menyuan, China, Earthquake

ABSTRACT On 8 January 2022, Menyuan County, China, was struck by an Mw 6.6 earthquake that caused surface rupture in the epicentral area and severe damage to an important railway bridge. The earthquake was recorded by only one strong-motion station, which presents a challenge for quantitatively estimating the extent of the ground-motion distribution caused by this event. In this study, the spectral element method (SPECFEM3D code), which solves the elastodynamic equations and can capture the full physics of seismic-wave propagation, is employed for broadband (0–10 Hz) ground-motion simulations of this earthquake. A hybrid kinematic source is developed in which the final slip distribution combines a prescribed asperity model based on Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar data (as a source for low-frequency radiation) and a stochastic part (as a source for high-frequency radiation), which introduces spatial heterogeneities to the prescribed asperity model. The numerical approach is first validated by modeling the well-recorded 1994 Northridge earthquake before modeling the Menyuan earthquake. The simulated ground motion is compared with the only observed strong-motion station record, as well as with empirical Next Generation Attenuation-West2 ground-motion models. Then, topography effect in Menyuan earthquake is studied in detail. The simulated ground motions with and without surface topography indicate that the topography tends to focus and scatter the seismic wavefield, resulting in amplification of the ground shaking. The results show a significant correlation between the peak ground velocity (PGV) and topography. The PGV amplification caused by topography effects is period dependent, and its peak amplification reaches up to 50% within a typical resonance period (1–2 s). It could be inferred that the railway bridge probably vibrated in resonance and suffered severe damage owing to the amplified long-period ground motion caused by the topography.

Comparing and evaluating alternative methods to account for shallow site effects in hybrid broadband ground-motion simulations

Comparing and evaluating alternative methods to account for shallow site effects in hybrid broadband ground-motion simulations

Broadband ground motion simulation using a hybrid approach of the May 21, 2021 M7.4 earthquake in Maduo, Qinghai, China

In this study, the broadband ground motions of the 2021 M7.4 Maduo earthquake were simulated to overcome the scarcity of ground motion recordings and the low resolution of macroseismic intensity map in sparsely populated high-altitude regions. The simulation was conducted with a hybrid methodology, combining a stochastic high-frequency simulation with a low-frequency ground motion simulation, from the regional 1-D velocity structure model and the Wang WM et al. (2022) source rupture model, respectively. We found that the three-component waveforms simulated for specific stations matched the waveforms recorded at those stations, in terms of amplitude, duration, and frequency content. The validation results demonstrate the ability of the hybrid simulation method to reproduce the main characteristics of the observed ground motions for the 2021 Maduo earthquake over a broad frequency range. Our simulations suggest that the official map of macroseismic intensity tends to overestimate shaking by one intensity unit. Comparisons of simulations with empirical ground motion models indicate generally good consistency between the simulated and empirically predicted intensity measures. The high-frequency components of ground motions were found to be more prominent, while the low-frequency components were not, which is unexpected for large earthquakes. Our simulations provide valuable insight into the effects of source complexity on the level and variability of the resulting ground motions. The acceleration and velocity time histories and corresponding response spectra were provided for selected representative sites where no records were available. The simulated results have important implications for evaluating the performance of engineering structures in the epicentral regions of this earthquake and for estimating seismic hazards in the Tibetan regions where no strong ground motion records are available for large earthquakes.

The neglected Istanbul earthquakes in the North Anatolian Shear Zone: tectonic implications and broad-band ground motion simulations for a future moderate event

SUMMARYİstanbul (Marmara Region, NW Turkey) is one of the megacities in the world and suffered from destructive earthquakes on the North Anatolian Fault, a member of the North Anatolian Shear Zone, throughout history. The 1999 Kocaeli and Düzce earthquakes emphasize the earthquake potential of the fault, crossing the Sea of Marmara, and the importance of seismic hazards in the region. The studies in the last 20 yr have concentrated on the main fault and its future destructive earthquake potential. In this study, unlike the previous ones, we focus on the two main topics about the earthquakes not interested previously in İstanbul: (1) Investigating recent earthquake activity masked by the blasts in the metropolitan area and its tectonic implications, (2) revealing their effects in İstanbul utilizing numerical ground motion simulations for a future moderate event (Mw 5). First, the 386 earthquakes from 2006 to 2016 are relocated with the double-difference method using the dense seismic network operated in the same period. The source mechanisms of the events (ML ≥ 3), including the most recent 2021 Kartal–İstanbul earthquake (ML 4.1), are determined. In addition to the analysis of the recent seismic activity, the location of the two moderate and pre-instrumental-period İstanbul earthquakes, which occurred in 1923 (Mw 5.5) and 1929 (Mw 5.1), are revised. Using the relocated epicentres outside of the principal deformation zone and the fault plane solutions, the roles of the earthquakes in the stress regime of the Marmara region are explained. The epicentres on the Cenozoic or Palaeozoic formation in the Istanbul–Zonguldak Zone are interpreted as the re-activation of the palaeo-structures under the recent tectonic stresses, and their fault plane solutions agree with the synthetic/antithetic shears of a transtensional regime corresponding to the right lateral strike-slip system with mainly N–S extension in the Marmara Region. In the second part, we investigate the effects of moderate scenario events (Mw 5) considering the current earthquake epicentres in the İstanbul metropolitan area, using characterized earthquake source model and 1-D velocity structure verified with the broad-band (0.1–10 Hz) numerical ground motion simulation of the 2021 Kartal–İstanbul earthquake. The simulated PGAs agree with the ground-motion prediction equations for short epicentral distances (&amp;lt;30 km). Furthermore, according to the empirical relation for Turkish earthquakes, the maximum PGA value of the synthetic models (∼0.3 g) corresponds to the felt intensity of MMI IX. The simulated spectral accelerations for the Mw 5 earthquake scenarios may exceed the design spectrum between 0.2 and 0.6 s given in the Turkish Building Earthquake Code (2018). In addition, certain models also generate spectral accelerations close to the design-level spectrum between 0.4 and 1 s, leading to resonance phenomena. The results indicate that a moderate event (Mw 5) in the İstanbul metropolitan area is capable of damage potential for the mid-rise buildings (4–10 stories) because of the site condition with resonance phenomena and poor construction quality.

Hybrid broadband ground-motion simulation validation of small magnitude active shallow crustal earthquakes in New Zealand

This article presents a comprehensive validation of the hybrid broadband ground-motion simulation approach (via the commonly used Graves and Pitarka method) in a New Zealand context with small magnitude point source ruptures using an extensive set of 5218 ground motions recorded at 212 sites from 479 active shallow crustal earthquakes across the country. Modifications to the simulation method inferred from a previous New Zealand validation are implemented, and the improvements are explicitly quantified. Empirical ground-motion models are also considered to provide a benchmark for simulation prediction accuracy and precision. Examination of intensity measure residuals identifies that the simulation method modifications lead to reduced model prediction bias and within-event variability and provides evidence toward the use of spatially varying coefficient models for simulation parameters, such as the high-frequency Brune stress parameter. Additional biases identified include, among others, underprediction of significant durations at soft soil sites and overprediction of short-period pseudo-spectral accelerations at stiff alluvial gravel and rock sites due to low-estimated 30 m time-averaged shear-wave velocity values.

Testing Site Amplification Curves in Hybrid Broadband Ground Motion Simulations of M6.0, 24 August 2016 Amatrice Earthquake, Italy

This research focuses on predicting and assessing earthquake impact due to future scenarios regarding the ground motion seismic hazard by accounting mainly for site effect in the Central Apennines. To this end, we produced synthetic broadband seismograms by adopting a hybrid simulation technique for the Mw6.0 Amatrice earthquake, Central Italy, on 24 August 2016, accounting for site conditions by means of amplification curves, computed with different approaches. Simulations were validated by comparing with data recorded at 57 strong-motion stations, the majority installed in urban areas. This station sample was selected among stations recording the Amatrice earthquake within an epicentral distance of 150 km and potentially prone to experience site amplification effects because of lying in particular site conditions (sedimentary basins, topographic irregularities, and fault zones). The evaluation of amplification curves best suited to describe local effects is of great importance because many towns and villages in central Italy are built in very different geomorphological conditions, from valleys and sedimentary basins to topographies. In order to well reproduce observed ground motions, we accounted for the site amplification effect by testing various generic and empirical amplification curves such as horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios (calculated from Fourier spectra using both earthquake, HVSR, and ambient noise, HVNSR, recordings) and those derived from the generalized inversion technique (GIT). The site amplifications emanated from GIT improve the match between observed and simulated data, especially in the case of stations installed in sedimentary basins, where the empirical amplification curve effectively reproduces spectral peaks. On the contrary, the worst performances are for the spectral ratios between components, even compared to the generic site amplification, although the latter ignores the strong bedrock/soil seismic impedance contrasts. At sites on topography, we did not observe any systematic behavior, the use of empirical curves ameliorating the fit only in a small percentage of cases. These results may provide a valuable framework for developing ground motion models for earthquake seismic hazard assessment and risk mitigation, especially in urban areas located in the seismically active central Italy region.

Hybrid Broadband Ground Motion Simulation for 2015 Mw 7.9 Nepal Earthquake

The present study aims at simulating broadband ground motions in the epicentral region of the 2015[Formula: see text]Mw 7.9 Nepal event, using hybrid broadband technique. The spectral element method is used to simulate the low-frequency ground motion. The three-dimensional material property variation and the basin geometry at the Kathmandu basin are incorporated in the spectral element model. High frequency synthetics are simulated using scattering Green’s function approach by consistently using the source and medium model of low frequency simulation. The simulated Low Frequency (LF) (0–0.3[Formula: see text]Hz) results are combined with high-frequency scatterograms to generate broadband ground motions (0–10[Formula: see text]Hz). The scattering parameters for broadband ground motion simulation are estimated from the recorded data of Nepal mainshock. These parameters are used further for simulating the ground motions over a grid of stations at 2[Formula: see text]km [Formula: see text] 2[Formula: see text]km spacing at the epicentral region. The simulated results are shown as peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity, and spectral acceleration contours plots. The maximum PGA in the horizontal and vertical directions are 0.35[Formula: see text]g and 0.32[Formula: see text]g in the epicentral region. Also, the acceleration time histories and corresponding response spectra are presented for some of the selected cities in the region where no records are available. These simulated outcomes are used for analyzing the validity of Indian seismic codal provisions at the near-field of large Himalayan earthquakes. The results show the significant underestimation of near-field hazard by the codal provisions at the Himalayan region.

Broadband Ground Motion Simulation Using a Hybrid Approach of the 21 May 2021 M 7.4 Maduo, Qinghai, China, Earthquake

Broadband Ground Motion Simulation Using a Hybrid Approach of the 21 May 2021 M 7.4 Maduo, Qinghai, China, Earthquake

Broadband ground motion simulations for Northeast India

This study presents broadband (BB) ground motions for two historical earthquakes (Mw ≥ 8) in Northeast (NE) India. We apply a recently developed geology-based 3D velocity model of the Northeastern region (NER) to simulate low frequency (LF) ground motions (f < 1Hz). These synthetics are further combined with high frequency (HF) scattering wave-fields (f > 1Hz) using a hybrid approach, thus yielding BB ground motions (0.1–10Hz). First, we calibrate the 3D model and scattering parameters by comparing the simulated ground motions against recorded data available for four events (Mw 5.2, Mw 5.5, Mw 6.3, and Mw 7.2) in NE India. Our results indicate that the variability of the bias for spectral acceleration (SA) lies within limits [-1,1] for all four events. From the statistical analysis of the ground motion, we also observe that the hybrid approach gives a realistic estimation of site-specific BB ground motion and consistently reproduces the prominent features of the observed motions up to 10Hz at most of the stations. Next, we simulate a suite of BB ground motions to estimate ground motion intensities for two historical earthquakes (viz., 1897 Assam event, 1950 Assam event) in NE India. Our results indicate that the variations in the ground motion intensities at hard rock and soft soil sites are manifestations of the local geology and surface topography incorporated in the 3D regional velocity model. We also observe that the peak ground acceleration (PGA) for both events exceed 1 g in the epicentral region. The BB ground motions obtained from this approach will be useful to engineers in seismic design and site-specific hazard estimation.

Near-Fault Broadband Ground Motion Simulation Applications at the Central Ionian Islands, Greece

Near-Fault Broadband Ground Motion Simulation Applications at the Central Ionian Islands, Greece

Hybrid broadband strong-motion simulation to investigate the near-source characteristics of the M6.5, 30 October 2016 Norcia, Italy earthquake

During the 2016–2017 Central Italy earthquake sequence, a series of moderate to large earthquakes M > 5 occurred near the Amatrice and Norcia towns. These events are recorded on a dense seismic network, providing relevant observational evidence of complex earthquakes in time and space. In this work, we used this substantial data set to study the ground-motion characteristics of the Norcia earthquake M6.5 on October 30, 2016, through a broadband ground-motion simulation. Three-component broadband seismograms are generated to cover the entire frequency band of engineering interest. Low and high frequencies are computed considering the heterogeneous slip rupture model of Scognamiglio et al. (2018) [1]. High frequencies are calculated using a stochastic approach including P, SV, and SH waves, while low frequencies are obtained through a forward simulation of the kinematic model at the various stations. To predict earthquake-induced ground-motions in the area, we adopted region-specific attenuation and source scaling parameters derived by Malagnini et al. (2011) [2]. Ground-motion parameters, including peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity (PGV) and spectral amplitudes, are calculated at the selected sites adopting physics-based parameters to understand better the earthquake fault rupture, the wave propagation, and their impacts on the seismic hazard assessment in the region. We showed that combining the fault rupture history over the entire frequency spectrum of engineering interest, the attenuation characteristics of the seismic wave propagation and the properly defined site responses can improve the prediction of ground-motions and time histories, especially in near seismic sources.

Hybrid broadband ground motion simulations in the Indo-Gangetic basin for great Himalayan earthquake scenarios

This study presents broadband ground motions for the Indo-Gangetic basin, a large sedimentary basin in India, for potential future great (Mw 8.5) Himalayan earthquakes. We use a recently developed 3D earth structure model of the basin as an input to simulate low-frequency ground motion (0–0.5 Hz). These ground motions are further combined with high-frequency scattering waveforms by using a hybrid approach, thus yielding broadband ground motions (0–10 Hz). We calibrate the 3D model and scattering parameters by comparing the simulated ground motions against available recorded data for two past earthquakes in Himalaya. Our approach accounts for the physics of interaction between the scattered seismic waves with deep basin sediments. Our results indicate that the ground motion intensities exhibit frequency-dependent amplification at various basin depths. We also observe that in the event of a great earthquake, the ground motion intensities are larger at deep basin sites near the source and exhibit an attenuating trend over distance similar to the ground motion models. The extreme ground motion simulations performed in our study reveal that the national building codes may not provide safe recommendations at deep basin sites, especially in the near field region. The period-dependent vertical-to-horizontal spectral ratio deviates from the code-recommended constant 2/3 at least up to 6 s at these sites.

Broadband ground-motion simulations by coupling regional velocity structures with the geophysical information of specific sites

Velocity structures are essential for deterministic numerical simulation of ground motions. However, accurate 3D velocity structures are often lacking for most regions. Even if 3D regional velocity structures are available, they may have poor resolution and differ significantly from the realistic situation in local areas. To deal with this issue, this paper proposes a method to improve the velocity structures in broadband ground motion simulations by coupling the accessible regional velocity structures with the local geophysical information. Specifically, the square areas around the sites of target in the regional velocity structures are modified according to the local geophysical parameters. To verify this proposed method, the 1994 Northridge earthquake is simulated with the spectral element method as a case study. A 3D velocity model and two 1D velocity models, coupled with the local geophysical parameters, are used in the ground-motion simulation. It is demonstrated that ground motion simulations with the combination of regional velocity structures and local geophysical information can generally generate broadband ground motions that have a fair or good fit to the records. Therefore, the proposed method makes it promising to apply deterministic numerical simulations to earthquake engineering in regions without accurate velocity structures.

Broad-band ground-motion simulation of 2016 Amatrice earthquake, Central Italy

SUMMARYOn 24 August 2016 at 01:36 UTC a ML6.0 earthquake struck several villages in central Italy, among which Accumoli, Amatrice and Arquata del Tronto. The earthquake was recorded by about 350 seismic stations, causing 299 fatalities and damage with macroseismic intensities up to 11. The maximum acceleration was observed at Amatrice station (AMT) reaching 916 cm s–2 on E–W component, with epicentral distance of 15 km and Joyner and Boore distance to the fault surface (RJB) of less than a kilometre. Motivated by the high levels of observed ground motion and damage, we generate broad-band seismograms for engineering purposes by adopting a hybrid method. To infer the low frequency seismograms, we considered the kinematic slip model by Tinti et al . The high frequency seismograms were produced using a stochastic finite-fault model approach based on dynamic corner-frequency. Broad-band synthetic time-series were therefore obtained by merging the low and high frequency seismograms. Simulated hybrid ground motions were compared both with the observed ground motions and the ground-motion prediction equations (GMPEs), to explore their performance and to retrieve the region-specific parameters endorsed for the simulations. In the near-fault area we observed that hybrid simulations have a higher capability to detect near source effects and to reproduce the source complexity than the use of GMPEs. Indeed, the general good consistency found between synthetic and observed ground motion (both in the time and frequency domain), suggests that the use of regional-specific source scaling and attenuation parameters together with the source complexity in hybrid simulations improves ground motion estimations. To include the site effect in stochastic simulations at selected stations, we tested the use of amplification curves derived from HVRSs (horizontal-to-vertical response spectra) and from HVSRs (horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios) rather than the use of generic curves according to NTC18 Italian seismic design code. We generally found a further reduction of residuals between observed and simulated both in terms of time histories and spectra.

Hybrid broadband ground motion simulation validation of small magnitude earthquakes in Canterbury, New Zealand

Ground motion simulation validation is an important and necessary task toward establishing the efficacy of physics-based ground motion simulations for seismic hazard analysis and earthquake engineering applications. This article presents a comprehensive validation of the commonly used Graves and Pitarka hybrid broadband ground motion simulation methodology with a recently developed three-dimensional (3D) Canterbury Velocity Model. This is done through simulation of 148 small magnitude earthquake events in the Canterbury, New Zealand, region in order to supplement prior validation efforts directed at several larger magnitude events. Recent empirical ground motion models are also considered to benchmark the simulation predictive capability, which is examined by partitioning the prediction residuals into the various components of ground motion variability. Biases identified in source, path, and site components suggest that improvements to the predictive capabilities of the simulation methodology can be made by using a longer high-frequency path duration model, reducing empirical V s30-based low-frequency site amplification, and utilizing site-specific velocity models in the high-frequency simulations.

Large Stress Release During Normal-Faulting Earthquakes in Western Turkey Supported by Broadband Ground Motion Simulations

This article investigates the stress drop variability of shallow normal-faulting earthquakes in western Anatolia through strong-motion simulations. For this purpose, source characteristics of three moderate to large magnitude events are constrained by the empirical Green’s function simulation in a broadband frequency range. Recordings of ten strong-motion stations in 78-km epicentral distance range are utilized for the simulation. Estimated strong-motion generation areas (SMGAs) are 22 km2, 66 km2, and 110 km2 where rise times are 0.6 s, 0.7 s, and 0.6 s, respectively, for the 2011 Simav (Mw 5.8), 2017 Lesvos (Mw 6.3), and 2017 Bodrum-Kos (Mw 6.6) earthquakes. Those values are found to be consistent with global source-scaling relationships. One particular observation is that stress drop ratios between the mainshock and aftershock for all events are relatively large compared with those previously calculated for strike-slip events in Turkey. Stress drops of SMGAs for the Simav and Bodrum earthquakes are in the range of 25 MPa, and this value drops to 19 MPa for the Lesvos earthquake. To further investigate the stress drop variation of earthquakes in Western Anatolia, an earthquake source database (fc-Mo) offered by Yamanaka et al. (IAG-IASPEI 2017, S07-1-03, 2017) is utilized. Brune (Journal of Geophysical Research, 76:5002, 1971) stress drop values of > 360 small to moderate earthquakes (Mw 3.0–6.0) are calculated with the given corner frequency and seismic moment information assuming a constant shear wave velocity. Results indicate that the majority of the earthquakes have a stress drop value < 5 MPa. This value changes to between 5 and 57 MPa for the remaining earthquakes. These high stress drop values support the former findings stating that normal-faulting earthquakes may release higher stress than strike-slip earthquakes. This indicates that the regional stress regime in western Turkey may cause relatively larger stress release during the normal-faulting mainshocks.

Broadband Ground Motion Simulation Within the City of Düzce (Turkey) and Building Response Simulation

In areas with significant seismic activity and insufficient seismic networks, simulated ground motions are required for both seismic hazard and engineering analyses. One important task is evaluating the efficiency of the simulated records in building response estimation. In this study, a hybrid ground motion simulation framework is presented to obtain broadband ground motion time histories of a past major earthquake in Duzce (Turkey). The hybrid ground motion simulation framework presented herein is a combination of a discrete-wavenumber finite element method for simulating low frequencies and a stochastic finite-fault method for the higher frequencies. The proposed technique is first validated by the simulation of the 12 November 1999 Duzce earthquake (\(M_{\text{w}}\) = 7.1), which occurred in the North Anatolian Fault Zone, Turkey. Peak simulated ground motions at selected nodes are then compared against ground motion prediction equations derived with global and local data sets. Next, the spatial distribution of simulated peak ground motion intensities are obtained in the region and compared with the observed damage distribution. Results demonstrate that the earthquake is simulated effectively despite the limitations in number of stations and velocity models. Finally, to evaluate the simulated records in building response estimation, nonlinear time history analyses of three reinforced-concrete multi-degree-of-freedom structures are performed with real and simulated records of the 1999 Duzce earthquake in the OpenSees platform. The results reveal that reasonable predictions can be made regarding the dynamic response of structures using the records simulated with the approach presented herein.

Methodology and computational implementation of a New Zealand Velocity Model (NZVM2.0) for broadband ground motion simulation

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a generalised velocity model construction methodology, its computational implementation, and application in the construction of a New Zealand Velocity Model (NZVM2.0) for use in physics-based broadband ground motion simulation. The methodology utilises multiple datasets spanning different length scales, which is enabled via the use of modular subregions, geologic surfaces, and parametric representations of crustal velocity. A number of efficiency-related workflows to decrease the overall computational construction time are employed, while maintaining the flexibility and extensibility to incorporate additional datasets and refined velocity parameterisations as they become available. The methodology and computational implementation processes are then applied for development of a New Zealand Velocity Model (NZVM2.0) for use in broadband ground motion simulation. The model comprises explicit representations of the Canterbury, Wellington, Nelson-Tasman, Kaikōura, Marlborough, Waiau, Hanmer and Cheviot sedimentary basins embedded within an existing regional travel-time tomography-based velocity model for the shallow crust.