British United Turkeys Research Articles

The response of turkeys to dietary balanced protein during two periods of growth

ABSTRACT 1. Two experiments were conducted to measure the response of growing turkeys to dietary protein content. In the first, 960 sexed British United Turkey (BUT 6) poults were used to measure the response to balanced protein from 3 to 6 weeks of age. In the second, 1440 sexed BUT and Hybrid Converter poults were raised from 14 to 17 weeks. 2. In both experiments, six levels of dietary protein were fed, with feed intake, body and feather weight gain and changes in body composition measured. The levels of protein chosen ranged from 0.53 to 1.2 of the Aviagen requirements for growing turkeys. 3. In the first experiment, six poults were sampled from each sex at the start of the experiment for carcass analysis, and four were sampled from each strain and sex in the second. At the end of each experiment, eight poults from each treatment were sampled. Body composition analyses were made on individual defeathered birds. 4. Weight gain increased linearly with protein intake in the early period and exponentially in the later period. In both periods, feed intake decreased as protein content reduced. 5. In the early period, body lipid content increased from 20.2 to 41.5 g/kg body weight, as dietary protein content decreased, but there was no change in the later period. Efficiency of utilisation of dietary protein declined linearly with an increase in dietary protein content, from 0.87 to 0.46 g/g in the first, and from 0.43 to 0.27 g/g in the later period. 6. The inability of the growing turkey to increase feed intake on marginally limiting feeds may have been due to a genetic constraints to store excess energy consumed as body lipid, resulting in the observed decrease in feed intake as dietary protein content is reduced.

Effect of replacing soybean meal with shrimp waste meal in the diets of growing turkeys on nutrient digestibility and metabolisable energy

Abstract Soybean meal (SBM), one of the main protein sources in turkey production is becoming expensive. Shrimp waste meal (SWM), a by‑product of the shrimp industry is a good prospect as a cheaper alternative. It was hypothesised that Nigerian indigenous turkeys (NIT) should be able to digest and utilise SWM better than British United Turkeys (BUT) because of their hardy nature. A 56‑day study was carried out to determine metabolisable energy and apparent nutrient digestibility of growing turkeys fed diets containing SWM. Four diets were formulated such that SBM in the control diet (diet 1) was substituted by SWM at 150, 300 and 450 g/kg (protein for protein) in diets 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Eighty (80) four‑weeks‑old male sex BUT and 80 NIT were allotted on weight equalisation into four dietary treatments replicated four times with five turkeys per replicate in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement. The total faecal collection method was used for determining apparent and true nutrient digestibility and metabolisable energy values. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomised design and data collected were analysed using ANOVA with SAS package. At the starter phase, NIT recorded (p < 0.05) higher values for dry matter (DM), Ether extract (EE), nitrogen‑free extract (NFE), Apparent metabolisable energy corrected for nitrogen (AMEn) but lower true metabolisable energy corrected for nitrogen (TMEn). Turkeys fed SWM recorded higher (p < 0.05) AMEn. At the grower phase, turkeys fed 300 g/kg SWM recorded higher (p < 0.05) values for CF and ash. Ash and CP digestibility values were higher (p < 0.05) in BUT ditto for TMEn. It was concluded that NIT could handle SWM better than BUT, however, only at the starter phase at 300 g/kg substitution for SBM.

Assessment of Neurodegenerative Changes in Turkeys Fed Diets with Different Proportions of Arginine and Methionine Relative to Lysine.

Simple SummaryIt is important to take care of a properly balanced amino acid composition in the diet in order to inhibit or delay the occurrence of processes and changes related to the destruction of nervous tissue. Therefore, an attempt was made in this manuscript to evaluate the effect of different ratios of the key amino acids arginine and methionine, relative to lysine, in relation to two turkey feeding standards. The amino acid guidelines formulated by British United Turkeys (BUT) suggest higher levels of lysine (Lys) in turkey diets than those recommended by the National Research Council (NRC). In order to assess the impact of such supplementation, we analyzed the level of indicators informing the presence or degree of advancement of neurodegenerative processes in the nervous tissue (the level of acetylcholinesterase and amyloid-β; the concentration of AChE complexes with amyloid-β and Tau protein, called glycosylated acetylcholinesterase (GAChE), indicative of the destruction of neurons). The level of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1, or LRP-1, which facilitates the breakdown of toxic amyloid-β, was also assessed. In addition, the effect of different doses of these amino acids on neurodegenerative changes in DNA, especially the degree of methylation of histone proteins resulting from covalent modifications was compared between lysine and arginine residues.We postulated that the use of optimal levels and proportions of Arg and Met relative to a low or high concentration of Lys in diets for meat turkeys would reduce the occurrence of metabolic disturbances in the nervous tissue that can lead to neurodegenerative changes. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of various proportions of Lys, Arg, and Met in diets for turkeys, with a low content of Lys in accordance with NRC (Experiment 1) recommendations, and in diets with high Lys levels that are close to the recommendations of breeding companies (Experiment 2) on selected indicators of potential neurodegenerative effects in the brain and liver of turkeys. The Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 was conducted using 864 day-old turkey chicks randomly assigned to six groups, in eight replicates (6 groups × 18 birds × 8 replicates). A full description of the methodology can be found in previously published papers using the same experimental design. Indicators informing about the presence or advancement of neurodegenerative processes in the nervous tissue were determined in the brain and liver (level of: AChE, amyloid-β, GAChE, Tau protein, LRP1, and the degree of DNA methylation). It was established that in the case of both a low (National Research Council, NRC) and a high (British United Turkeys, BUT) level of Lys in the diet of turkeys, the Arg level can be reduced to 90% of the Lys level and Met to 30% of the Lys level, because this does not cause neurodegenerative changes in turkeys. Unfavorable neurodegenerative changes may appear if the Arg level is increased from 100 to 110% of the Lys level recommended by the NRC. However, due to the lack of such a relationship when Arg is increased from 100 to 110% of the Lys level recommended by BUT, at this stage of research no definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding the risk of neurodegenerative changes caused by increasing Arg in the diet of turkeys.

Selection signatures in melanocortin-1 receptor gene of turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) raised in hot humid tropics.

Feather colours are used by avian species for defense, adaptation and signaling. Melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) gene is one of the genes responsible for feather colour. This study identified selection signatures in MC1R gene of Nigerian indigenous turkeys (NIT) using British United turkeys (BUT) as control breed to investigate the evolutionary processes that have shaped NIT with various feather colours. Complete MC1R gene of 146 NIT (76 males and 70 females) and 32 BUT (18 males and 14 females) were sequenced. Transition/transversion and codon usage biases were predicted using MEGA v6 software. The selective force acting on the gene was predicted using HyPhy software. The FST values were estimated using Arlequin v3.5. The highest transition/transversion bias was predicted for white BUT (1.00) while the lowest was predicted for black NIT (0.50). Negative dN-dS values, indicative of purifying selection, were observed in MC1R gene of all the turkeys. The highest pairwise FST was observed between the MC1R gene of white BUT and black NIT while the least was observed between lavender NIT and white NIT. No recombination event was observed in black NIT and white BUT. The relative synonymous codon usage was the same among different colours for some codons. Presence of purifying selection in MC1R gene of all the turkeys with different feather colours confirms that the gene plays role in many biological processes such as feather colouration, behaviour, pain perception, immunity, growth and adaptation. The results also suggested that the genetic mechanisms generating different feather colours in turkeys are conserved.

Selected metabolic, epigenetic, nitration and redox parameters in turkeys fed diets with different levels of arginine and methionine

Abstract The amino acid guidelines formulated by British United Turkeys postulate higher levels of lysine (Lys) in turkey diets than those recommended by the National Research Council. However, any modifications in the Lys content of turkey diets should be accompanied by changes in the inclusion rates of other amino acids, including methionine (Met) and arginine (Arg). The research hypothesis postulates that the appropriate inclusion levels and ratios of arginine and methionine in turkey diets with high lysine content can improve the antioxidant status of turkeys without compromising their metabolism. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of different Arg and Met ratios in Lys-rich diets on biochemical indicators, redox status and epigenetic changes in turkeys. The turkeys were assigned to six groups with eight replicates per group and 18 birds per replicate. Six feeding programs, with three dietary Arg levels (90%, 100% and 110%) and two dietary Met levels (30% and 45%) relative to dietary Lys content were compared. During each of the four feeding phases, birds were fed ad libitum isocaloric diets with high Lys content. Our results show that in growing turkeys fed diets with high Lys content, the inclusion rate of Arg can be set at 90% of Lys content with no negative effects on their antioxidant status, metabolism or performance. Diets with high Arg content (110% Lys) are not recommended due to the risk of lipid and protein damage, and an undesirable increase in insulin and T4 levels. Regardless of dietary Arg levels, an increase in the Met inclusion rate from 30% to 45% of Lys content minimizes the oxidation of lipids, proteins and DNA, and increases the antioxidant defense potential of turkeys.

Studies regarding the occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism in flocks of non-beaktrimmed male turkeys (B.U.T. 6) kept under different stocking densities in an enriched curtain-sided barn

Abstract The occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism is a challenge in turkey husbandry in regard to animal welfare, especially as the triggers of these behavioural disorders have not been finally clarified. Genetics, lightning, feeding, flock size, stocking density and poor environmental complexity are discussed as the main reasons. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a reduced stocking density on the occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism in turkeys. In addition, it was examined whether an environmental enrichment with structural elements and manipulable materials in combination with intensive animal care allows the keeping of non-beaktrimmed male turkeys in a curtain-sided barn. Therefore, two consecutive trials with two flocks of non-beaktrimmed toms (British United Turkeys 6) were conducted. Animals were kept with defined stocking densities of 40 kg/m² as low stocking density (LD) and 58 kg/m² as high stocking density (HD). The separation of injured turkeys, total losses and numbers of dead and culled animals, with special emphasis on injuries caused by cannibalism, were recorded separately for both flocks. Within this study reducing the stocking density did not result in a decrease of injurious pecking. Separation rates of up to a maximum of 15.81% were documented. Whereas in the first trial significantly more turkeys of the HD flock had to be separated due to injuries (HD 9.30%; LD 5.56%; p < 0.001), contrasting results could be found for the second trial (HD 4.93%; LD 7.67%; p = 0.0035). In both trials the cumulative mortality did not significantly differ between the different stocking densities and was less than 10%. In conclusion, stocking density did not affect the number of animals injured due to cannibalism. Furthermore, the study suggests, that structural environmental enrichment in combination with an intensive animal care may be key elements in keeping non-beaktrimmed toms in a curtain-sided barn.

Growth performance and blood indices of growing turkeys fed diets containing shrimp waste meal

Abstract Fish meal (FM) is a major source of animal protein in the diet of turkeys but its high cost has been a major challenge to poultry practitioners in developing countries. Growth performance and blood indices of growing turkeys fed diets containing shrimp waste meal (SWM) as substitute for FM were investigated in a 56-day feeding trial using eighty (80) 4-weeks-old male British United Turkeys (BUT). The turkeys were allotted on weight equalisation into four treatments with four replicates of five turkeys each. Four diets were formulated such that FM in the control diet (diet 1) was substituted by SWM at 150, 300 and 450 g/kg (protein for protein) in diets 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomised design and data collected were analysed using ANOVA. Cost of feed consumed was highest (p &lt; 0.05) for turkeys fed the control diet and lowest for group fed diet 4. Weight gain decreased (p &lt; 0.05) with increasing SWM level in the diet at the grower phase (day 57–84). Turkeys fed the 450 g/kg SWM diets had the lowest (p &lt; 0.05) feed intake. At the grower phase, best feed:gain, cost of feed consumed, feed cost per weight gain and protein efficiency ratio were recorded in turkeys fed control and 150 g/kg SWM diets. Uric acid, creatinine, cholesterol, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), haematocrit, and white blood count differed significantly (p &lt; 0.05) among the treatments at the starter phase. In conclusion, the present study showed that SWM can serve as a potential replacement for FM when substituted at 150 g/kg in the diets of turkeys without any deleterious effect on their performance and haematocrit.

Increased Dietary Inclusion Levels of Lysine Are More Effective than Arginine in Supporting the Functional Status of the Gut in Growing Turkeys.

Simple SummaryThe concentrations of essential amino acids (EAA) in turkey diets are established in line with the recommendations of either the British United Turkeys (BUT) or the National Research Council (NRC), which, however, differ with regard to the dietary levels and ratios of important EAA, including lysine (Lys), arginine (Arg) and methionine (Met). For instance, the dietary Arg:Lys ratio in turkey diets recommended by the BUT is approximately 2–5% higher than that recommended by the NRC. Similarly, the lowest and the highest values of the Met:Lys ratio recommended by the BUT exceed those recommended by the NRC by around six and three percentage points, respectively. The above differences may appear to be relatively small, but they raise concerns in the turkey production sector due to their potential impact on both feed cost and bird physiology. Since the turkey sector has grown rapidly in the past decade, a further understanding of the EAA needs of birds is essential to achieving high growth rates and maintaining a profitable and sustainable production.Arginine (Arg) and lysine (Lys) may be important for the overall health of turkeys. The aim of this study was to determine whether low (consistent with the guidelines) and high (10% higher than recommended) levels of dietary Arg and Lys can modulate performance and the functional status of the gut. Female turkeys were allocated to four dietary treatments (two levels of Lys (low or high) and two levels of Arg (low or high)) for a 16 wk feeding period. The treatments did not affect turkey performance determined separately for four feeding phases and for the entire 16 wk experiment (p > 0.05). They had no significant influence on carcass yield, meat characteristics or the associated traits either (p > 0.05). High-Lys diets contributed to a decrease in cecal pH, a significant increase in the concentrations of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and a decrease in the concentrations of putrefactive SCFA and ammonia in the cecum. High dietary levels of both amino acids significantly enhanced the activity of cecal microbiota evaluated based on extracellular enzyme activity. These findings indicate that the higher dietary level of Lys was more effective in modulating the physiological status of the gut in turkeys than Arg.

A case study of histomoniasis in fattening turkeys identified in histopathological investigations

Histomoniasis is a parasitic disease of poultry with worldwide prevalence, having significant negative impacts on infected turkey health and welfare. A total of 53,000 male fattening turkeys (British United Turkeys, BUT6) of 140-day-old were admitted to the slaughterhouse in central Ukraine. No clinical signs were reported in the turkeys during the production cycle. Slaughtering of the turkeys revealed enlargement of the livers, most of which had a greenish color with alterations in the hepatic tissues (fibrosis). No other gross lesions were noted in other organs of the slaughtered birds. Fresh liver tissues were submitted to the laboratory to measure the concentrations of lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc to detect possible intoxication and/or differential diagnosis. The concentrations of measured heavy metals in the affected liver tissues were within the recommended normal ranges. Histological examination revealed microscopically proliferative changes in liver sections in different turkeys. Suspected tissue sections were stained with Periodic Acid Schiff and found positive for Histomonas meleagridis trophozoites. Overall, macroscopical or microscopical examinations of turkey livers are essential to confirm infection with histomonads, even if the clinical signs are unapparent. As outbreaks of histomoniasis in turkey focks are increasing approaches to prevent and treat histomoniasis are urgently needed.

Identification of Bacterial Profiles and Their Interactions with Selected Quality, Oxidative, and Immunological Parameters of Turkey Semen.

Simple SummaryOverbreeding—and its associated increase in the chest areas of turkeys—has led to the loss of their natural ability to reproduce. Therefore, commercial production of turkey meat relies on artificial insemination. However, along with the physiology of the genital tract of turkeys, there is high potential for bacterial contamination of ejaculates. These bacteria may affect crucial semen quality parameters required for successful fertilization. As such, it is important to pay close attention to the bacteria present in turkey ejaculates and possible solutions to eliminate their adverse effects on avian spermatozoa.This study focused on the identification of naturally occurring bacteria in the reproductive fluid and impact on the quality of ejaculates obtained from the turkey breed British United Turkeys (BUT) Big 6 (n = 60). We determined possible relationships between the bacterial load and advanced sperm quality parameters that are important for effective artificial insemination and high fertility, as well as the concentration of selected antimicrobial proteins and pro-inflammatory markers of turkey semen. Sperm motility was assessed with computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA), while the membrane and acrosome integrity were examined with smearing and staining methods. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was quantified via luminometry, sperm DNA fragmentation was evaluated using the TUNEL assay, and the JC-1 assay was applied to evaluate the mitochondrial membrane potential. Cell lysates were prepared to investigate the extent of lipid and protein oxidation. Furthermore, levels of interleukins 1 and 6 (IL-1, IL-6), C-reactive protein, cathelicidin, and β-defensin were quantified in the seminal plasma using the ELISA method. The most dominant species identified by the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry was Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus lentus, and Citrobacter braakii. The bacterial load had a negative effect on the sperm motility (p < 0.001), as well as membrane (p < 0.05) and acrosome integrity (p < 0.01). A strong positive relationship between the bacterial load and DNA fragmentation (p < 0.001) was detected as well. Positive associations were recorded between the increasing presence of bacteria, ROS overgeneration (p < 0.001), and a subsequent oxidative damage to the proteins (p < 0.001) and lipids (p < 0.01). It was revealed that the antimicrobial peptides β-defensin (p < 0.001) and cathelicidin (p < 0.001) had a positive relationship with the motility. In contrast, pro-inflammatory markers, such as IL-1 (p < 0.001) and IL-6 (p < 0.001), had a negative impact on the motion behavior of turkey spermatozoa. Our results suggest that the semen quality may be notably affected by the bacterial quantity as well as quality. It seems that bacteriospermia is associated with inflammatory processes, oxidative stress, sperm structural deterioration, and a subsequent risk for a failed artificial insemination in turkey breeding.

Expression of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in turkey cardiac chambers

The aim of the present study was to characterize the specific binding sites for [N-methyl-3H]-scopolamine ([3H]-NMS), a radioligand for labeling muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), in membranes of four heart chambers obtained from adult male British United Turkey (BUT) Big 6 (“meat-type”) and Cröllwitzer (“wild-type”) turkeys. MAChR subtypes were examined by inhibiting [3H]-NMS binding with subtype selective non-labelled receptor antagonists. In all left and right atria as well as left and right ventricles of both turkey breeds, the specific [3H]-NMS binding was saturable, reversible and of high affinity (KD range: 0.5–1.0 nM). The maximum receptor density (Bmax) was not significantly different between the four cardiac chambers of BUT Big 6 turkeys, but a significant difference was found between atria and ventricles of Cröllwitzer turkeys. Moreover, significant lower Bmax was found in the atria of Cröllwitzer turkeys than in the atria of BUT Big 6, while the ventricular Bmax was significantly higher. In all cardiac chambers, unlabeled mAChR antagonists competed for specific [3H]-NMS binding sites in a concentration-dependent manner, suggesting the presence of the M3 and M2 receptor subtypes, whereby the latter was the predominant subtype. The presence of the M1 subtype could not be excluded. In conclusion, there was a difference between BUT Big 6 (“meat-type”) and Cröllwitzer (“wild-type”) turkeys with regard to receptor density in heart chambers with dominant M2 and M3 receptor subtypes.

Investigation of the occurrence of pathological carcass alterations at the processing plant in meat turkeys reared in organic production systems in Germany

In the present study the occurrence of turkey carcass alterations such as breast skin lesions, liver lesions, and swelling of the hock joint in turkeys reared in organic farms was investigated at slaughterhouses in Germany. The examinations included 1,860 turkey carcasses of 2 turkey lines Kelly Broad Breasted Bronze(BBB) (540 toms and 540 hens) and British United Turkeys (Big 6 and The Test Product 7) (780 hens). The results showed that breast skin lesions were rare (1.7%). On the other hand, liver lesions were a common finding in both hens and toms. Nearly half of all investigated turkeys were affected (49.3%). Swelling of the hock joint was detected in 17.3% of all investigated turkeys; the occurrence in Kelly BBB toms was significantly higher than in hens (toms: 28.7%; hens: 16.9%). In general, there were significant differences between the investigated flocks. Carcass lesions are a major animal welfare concern, which affect conventional and organic reared turkeys. Investigating the occurrence of carcass lesions provides the necessary precondition to establish a benchmarking system to evaluate and compare turkey farms. The aim is to reduce and/or eliminate these alterations in the long term in order to improve animal welfare.

Breast meat yield, muscle linear measurements and meat composition of turkeys fed 2 diet containing wheat or sorghum as sole cereal source

Breast meat yield, chemical composition, mineral profile and linear measurement of the resultant breast meat Supracoracoides and Pectoralis thoracicus of one hundred and eighty (28 days old BUT) male turkeys fed diet containing wheat or sorghum as sole cereal source were studied. One hundred and eighty 28-days old male turkeys (British United Turkeys, BUT) were randomly allotted into 18 pens with 10 poults housed in each pen (of dimension 3.0× 2.0 m). Three experimental diets were formulated for the starter (29-56 days), grower (57-84) and finisher phase (85-112 days) such that ground maize (control), wheat or sorghum (light brown coat variety) was used as the only cereal source. The turkeys were randomly allotted to 18 pens (each housing 10 turkeys) with each pen allocated to one of the experimental diets. Growth response, breast meat yield, chemical composition, mineral profile and linear measurement of the resultant breast meat yield were measured at the end of finishing phase. Turkeys fed with wheat and sorghum had similar dressing percentage values. Turkeys fed with sorghum recorded lower (P&lt;0.05) final live weight (10,002.10 g), weight gain (9084.90 g), feed intake (19,942.67 g), dressed weight (8099.94 g), breast meat yield (2691g) and higher relative BMY (269.05 g/kg LWT) than those fed with wheat. However, turkeys fed with wheat had higher (P&lt;0.05) Supracoccoides weight (672.15 g) and length (26.9 g) than those fed with sorghum which recorded higher relative Supracoccoides weight (58.81 g) than those fed with sole wheat (53.76 19 g). Crude protein, ether extract, ash content, gross energy and mineral content of the BMY were not affected by dietary inclusion of wheat or sorghum as sole cereal source. However, the breast meat of turkeys fed with sorghum had lower (P&lt;0.05) moisture (60.12%), cholesterol (19.05 mg/100g) and LDL (2.01 mg/100g) values than other corresponding values obtained for turkeys fed with wheat or control diet

Effect of varying level of ginger powder in the diet of starter turkeys on performance, haematological and serum biochemical indices

Dietary inclusion of various phytogenic additives has been used as alternative growth promoters in poultry. They enhance performance and stabilize health status of farm animals. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of inclusion of ginger powder to the diets of pre starter and starter turkeys at different levels (0g/kg, 2g/kg and 4g/kg) on its performance and some blood parameters. A total of one hundred and twenty day- old British United Turkey (BUT) poults were allotted on weight equalization basis into the 3 dietary treatments in a complete randomised design. Forty poults were assigned to each treatment group replicated four times with 10 poults per replicate. The study lasted for 56 days comprising of the prestarter (0-28 days) and starter (29-56 days) phases. At the pre-starter phase of the experiment, growth performance was not affected (p&gt;0.05) by ginger powder inclusion while the starter phase showed improved (p&lt;0.05) final weight, feed intake and feed conversion ratio. Final weight increased (p&lt;0.05) with ginger inclusion in the diets, while feed intake reduced linearly as ginger inclusion increased. Supplementation with ginger reduced haemoglobin and RBC of the pre starter turkeys. The RBC increases linearly (p&lt;0.05) as ginger supplementation increases with starter turkeys. Serum albumin improved significantly (p&lt;0.05) following dietary inclusion of 2 g/kg ginger powder at the starter (3.37g/dl) phase. In conclusion, starter turkeys fed diet containing ginger at 2 g/kg showed improved growth with improvement in hepatic enzyme activities.

Response of exotic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) poults to diets substituted with varying levels of hydrolysed feather meal or blood meal as partial replacement for fish meal

Recent concerns over the seasonal availability and high cost of conventional protein sources has necessitated the search for alternative feed protein with lesser feed-food competitive properties yet desirable and appropriate to poults. A study was designed to determine the response of exotic turkey poults (Meleagris gallopavo) to diets substituted with varying levels of hydrolysed feather meal (HFM) or blood meal (BLM) as partial replacement for fishmeal for 112days. One hundred and ninety-two British United Turkeys BUT) were allotted to eight dietary treatments comprising four replicates and six birds per replicate. The birds were arranged in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of two protein sources (Hydrolysed feather meal or Blood meal) included at 4 levels (0, 10, 20 and 30%). Diets 1-4 were formulated such that fish meal in control was replaced by feather meal, protein for protein. Diets 5-8 wereformulated such that fish meal in control was replaced by blood meal, protein for protein and included at 0, 10, 20 and 30%. Treatments 1 and 5 were the control groups. Data obtained were subjected to Analysis of Variance using SAS. Turkeys fed test ingredients at 20% substitution level recorded higher (p&lt;0.05) final weight and weight gain and best FCR at starter phase. Cost of feed/kg diet reduced (p&lt;0.05) as the substitution level of test ingredientincreased. Nutrient digestibility and energy metabolisability increased with increased substitution levels of test ingredients at the starter phase. Starter turkeys fed hydrolysed feather meal recorded higher energy metabolisability. It can be concluded from this study that substituting turkey diets with Hydrolysed feather meal and Blood meal at 20% inclusion level improves performance, nutrient digestibility and energy metabolisability.

The localization and expression of gonadotropin inhibitory hormone in the hypothalamus of turkey hens during the prepubertal, pubertal and postpubertal phases

Gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH), initially discovered in birds as a hypothalamic neuropeptide, inhibits the synthesis and release of gonadotropins by affecting GnRH neurons and gonadotropes. Therefore, it may be a key neuropeptide in reproduction in birds. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prepubertal, pubertal, and postpubertal localization of GnIH and changes in hypothalamic GnIH expression in British United Turkey hens. In prepubertal, pubertal, and postpubertal periods, the brains of turkey hens (n = 15) were removed after fixation. Sections (30 μm) were prepared from the entire hypothalamus and stained immunohistochemically against GnIH antibody. Gonadotropin inhibitory hormone–immunoreactive neurons were observed in the paraventricular nucleus. These neurons were significantly more abundant in the prepubertal turkeys than pubertal and postpubertal turkeys (P < 0.05). The results suggested that GnIH neurons have an important role in regulating the pubertal events in British United Turkey hens.

Effect of Different Levels and Sources of Dietary Copper, Zinc and Manganese on the Performance and Immune and Redox Status of Turkeys.

Simple SummaryCompanies producing turkey genetic (breeding) material recommend a much higher addition of Cu, Zn, and Mn to compound feed than recommended by the NRC. In practice, the poultry breeding companies in their feeding programs use an addition of these elements similar to the recommendations of breeding companies, without taking into account their content in the raw materials used for the production of feed. The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of the combined use of Cu, Zn, and Mn nanoparticles in the diet of slaughter turkeys with regard to potential reduction of the levels of these elements added to feed. Turkeys received the addition of Cu, Zn, and Mn in inorganic form or nanoparticles in amounts recommended by breeding companies, reduced to 10% of these recommendations or without the addition of these elements. The results of our research, showed that reducing the addition of these elements does not cause deterioration of performance and immunity of turkeys. It was also found that the addition of standard forms of these elements (inorganic forms) can be reduced without having to be replaced by nanoparticles.The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of the combined use of Cu, Zn, and Mn nanoparticles in the diet of turkeys with regard to potential reduction of the levels of these elements added to feed. The experiment was carried out on turkeys’ hens assigned to four groups. Turkeys from the PC group received feed with the addition of inorganic forms of Cu, Zn, and Mn in the B.U.T. (British United Turkeys) recommended levels, from group IR received the addition in amounts reduced to 10% of the recommended levels, and from group NR received the addition of elements in the form of nanoparticles in the same amounts as in group IR. The turkeys from group NC received feed without the addition of these elements. The research showed that the addition of Cu, Zn, and Mn to turkey diets, in both inorganic forms and as nanoparticles, in quantities covering only 10% of B.U.T. recommendations had no adverse effect on growth performance or on the antioxidant and immune defense of turkeys. The changes in the redox status of the turkeys whose diet was not supplemented with Cu, Zn, and Mn indicate reduced oxidation processes in the tissues.

Differences in prevalence of welfare indicators in male and female turkey flocks (Meleagris gallopavo)

Previous research has shown that the transect walks (TW) method provide a practical and effective approach to welfare assessment in broiler and turkey farms. This method for turkey welfare assessment is reasonable in terms of time demands within minimal costs. Furthermore, TW approach resembles the routine checks used by farmers. The overall aim of this study was to verify the feasibility of the TW method as potential practical tool for on-farm welfare assessment in turkeys during the fattening period. A total of 14 commercial turkey farms (8 male and 6 female flocks) of the same genetic strain (British United Turkeys [B.U.T.] - Big 6) with similar management standard procedures were evaluated. Bird ages at evaluation ranged from 122 to 138 D and 90 to 103 D old, for males and females, respectively. Two independent assessors walked slowly on randomized longitudinal paths (transects) within each house, while recording the prevalence of birds showing any of the 12 welfare and health indicators considered: immobility, lameness, wounds, small size, featherless, dirtiness, sick, terminally ill, dead, and behavioral indicators, such as, aggression towards mate, interaction with humans and mating. The effect of assessor, gender, and interaction assessor by gender was evaluated by using ANOVA. Reliability of the method was noted by the effect of gender (P < 0.001) for immobility, lameness, wounds, and dirtiness indicators. Male flocks showed higher prevalence of immobility (0.035±0.004%vs. 0.004±0.001%), lameness (2.269±0.108%vs. 1.253±0.051%), wounds (0.288±0.014%vs. 0.127±0.009%), and dirtiness (0.050±0.004%vs. 0.022±0.004%) as compared to female flocks. Differences among assessors were relatively minor, with differences detected only for back and tail wounds, dirtiness, aggression towards mate, and interaction with humans. This study reports advantages and limitations of this method for welfare assessment on-commercial turkey flocks and it is the first description of the Italian welfare profile of turkey's commercial flocks.

Investigation of the prevalence and severity of foot pad dermatitis at the slaughterhouse in fattening turkeys reared in organic production systems in Germany

The present study shows the prevalence and severity of foot pad dermatitis (FPD) in turkeys reared in organic production systems assessed at slaughterhouses in Germany. The investigations of altogether 1,860 turkeys of the strains Kelly Broad Breasted Bronze (Kelly BBB; 540 toms, 540 hens) and British United Turkeys (B.U.T.) 6 and the Test Product 7 (TP 7; 780 hens) showed that 97.7% of the examined turkeys were diagnosed with different degrees of FPD. Only 4.6% of the toms and 1.3% of the hens had feet without lesions. Most frequent were necrotic lesions measuring up to 2 cm in diameter (64.3% of all turkeys). Extensive necrotic lesions of the foot pads (toms: 29.8%; hens: 12.4%) and necrosis of superficial scales (toms: 11.3%; hens: 7.6%) were less frequent. Plantar abscesses were rare findings (1.9%). In general, the feet of the Kelly BBB hens were more affected by foot pad lesions than those of the Kelly BBB toms. There were significant differences between the investigated flocks concerning the occurrence of foot pad lesions. The aim in rearing turkeys must be the reduction of FPD.

The effect of the source and dose of manganese on the performance, digestibility and distribution of selected minerals, redox, and immune status of turkeys

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of various levels of manganese added to the diet of growing turkeys in the conventional form of MnO or in the form of NP-Mn2O3 nanoparticles on growth performance, absorption, and accumulation of Mn, Zn, and Cu, and antioxidant and immune status. The experiment was conducted on 1080 one-day-old Hybrid Converter turkeys randomly assigned to 6 groups with 10 replications, in a two-factor design with three dosages of manganese - 100, 50, and 10 mg/kg, and two sources-manganese oxide (MnO) and manganese nanoparticles (NP-Mn2O3). Neither reducing the addition of Mn from 100 to 50 or even 10 mg/kg of the diet nor replacing MnO with NP-Mn2O3 had a negative effect on the growth performance of the turkeys. Replacing MnO with NP-Mn2O3 in the turkey diet improved ileal digestibility of Mn and decreased accumulation of Cu in the liver and breast muscle. The study showed that irrespective of the form used, reducing the level of Mn supplementation of the diet from the 100 mg/kg recommended by British United Turkey to 50 or 10 mg/kg decreased its ileal digestibility and increased its accumulation in the liver, breast muscle, and skin. Reducing the addition of Mn to the turkey diet increased intestinal absorption of Zn and reduced accumulation of Zn and Cu in the liver, breast muscle, and skin. It did not increase oxidation processes in the liver or breast muscle of the turkeys. Reducing the addition of Mn to the turkey diet stimulated the immune system, which was manifested by stimulation of B cells to produce immunoglobulin M and by the release of the cytokine IL-6, but did not intensify apoptosis. The results of the study indicate that the recommended manganese supplement in turkey diets can be reduced. The use of manganese nanoparticles in turkey feeding requires further study.