British Rule Research Articles

Reconsidering ‘Sook Ching’ victimhood: A microhistory of Singapore’s Nishimura trial

Abstract This article highlights the cross-disciplinary methodological potential of Third World approaches to international law (TWAIL) and microhistory by studying the active and complex exercise of agency by victims in an understudied historical instance of post-war justice, namely, the Singapore ‘Sook Ching’ trial or Nishimura trial. This trial dealt with the arbitrary massacre of Chinese residents by the Japanese military during the Second World War. Using TWAIL and microhistory methods, this article analyses trial transcripts and archival material on the Nishimura trial, with a focus on the trial experiences of witnesses, survivors, and community representatives. By studying the Nishimura trial as mobilization and meaning-making opportunity, this microhistory draws attention to the exercise of social and political agency by the Chinese community under difficult post-war conditions and British colonial rule. Chinese community leaders represented the community as collectively victimized and united in the pursuit of post-war justice. However, a close analysis of trial transcripts reveals tensions within the community and the need for a more complex understanding of victimhood.

A Study on Baul Lalon Shah's Songs of Humanity in Communication Theory Perspective

This article explores the songs of Baul Lalon Shah, a prominent figure in the classical folklore of 19th-century Bengal under British rule. Lalon's music, deeply rooted in humanism, transcends caste, religion, and social divisions, emphasizing unity, equality, and peace. As a member of the Baul community, Lalon integrated diverse religious philosophies, including Hinduism, Tantric Buddhism, and Sufi Islam, into a unique spiritual discourse centred on humanity. His songs advocate for the primacy of humanism over religious and societal binaries. Despite their profound philosophical contributions, Lalon's songs have not been analyzed using rhetorical methods thoroughly. This study seeks to fill that gap by applying rhetorical analysis to examine the humanistic philosophy embedded in Lalon Shah's works. By doing so, it aims to reveal the enduring significance of his message in Bengali society and contribute to the broader discourse on global humanism. Disseminating these insights can play a transformative role in cultural and philosophical spheres.

Tamil Schools in the Federated Malay States under British Colonial Rule 1895-1941

In the time of British rule of the Federated Malay States (FMS) from 1895 to 1941, many Indians, especially the Tamils from South India, were brought in as labourers. Long-term Tamil primary schools were established to cater to their children's educational needs. This article presents a historical investigation of the development, challenges, and disparity faced by Tamil primary schools in the FMS between 1895-1941. The study employs thematic content analysis to study the primary and secondary historical sources. The findings report that four themes surrounding challenges and disparity emerged among Tamil schools in the FMS, namely building and equipment; subjects and syllabi; schoolteachers; and teacher training. The study underscores the development of Tamil schools in the FMS, the significant issues faced by the schools under British colonial rule, and the implications for children of Tamil migrants. Significantly, this study contributes new knowledge towards the history of education during British colonialism, emphasising the crucial role of Tamil schools in preserving language and culture and potentially shaping future research in this area.

Iconic architecture as vessel for political and cultural expression-Victoria Theatre and Concert Hall changing with Singapore cultural icon

ABSTRACT Architecture embodies symbolic meanings evolving across shifting socio-political landscapes. This paper investigates the multivalent transformations of Singapore’s iconic colonial landmark – the Victoria Theatre and Concert Hall (VTCH). Tracing VTCH’s metamorphosing roles, functions, and identities through historical ruptures like British rule, Japanese occupation, decolonization, and nation-building, it illuminates how the complex underwent profound changes. The analysis underscores how regimes continually reimagined this architectural palimpsest to forge national narratives, consolidate collective memories, and materialize power relations. VTCH’s transition from colonial edifice to a symbolically imbued site mirrors the intricate interplay between built environments and Singapore’s spatial politics. Once symbols of colonial dominance, the buildings later embodied sovereign nationhood and nostalgic roots. Notably, VTCH recently assumed new roles driving cultural tourism and economic growth. Through a diachronic interrogation of this singular icon, the paper elucidates broader dialectics between decolonization, nation-building, and the semiotics of heritage in (re)constructing collective identities. It offers insights into how societies redefine spatial legacies to serve evolving ideological imperatives and identity discourses. Integrating the micro-architectural and macro-national enriches understandings of the mutually constitutive relationships between the built environment, political authority and national consciousness.

Social Reforms and Political Activism Unpacking the Dual Role of Khudai Khidmatgar Movement

This article examines the Khudai Khidmatgar Movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan popularly known as Fakhr-i-Afghan Bacha khan, which played a pivotal role in social reform and political activism in colonial India. Founded in 1929, the movement adopted non-violent resistance to British rule while also addressing deep-rooted social issues within Pashtun society, such as factionalism, illiteracy, poverty, social and gender discrimination and blood feuds. Implying indegounious values, knowledge and tools, Ghaffar Khan promoted education, unity, and peaceful coexistence among his people, challenging the British narrative of Pashtuns as inherently violent. The article explores how the movement, initially focused on socio-educational reforms, evolved into a powerful force advocating for Indian independence, aligning with other non-violent movements like those led by Gandhi. Despite significant obstacles from the British and local elites, the Khudai Khidmatgar gained mass support, with over 100,000 members at its peak. The article highlights the movement’s transformative impact on Pashtun society and its contributions to the broader anti-colonial struggle, positioning it as a significant yet underappreciated chapter in South Asian history. This articles has relied on both primamry and secondary data for qualitative analysis, with most reliance on primary sorces of data collection. For this purpose, extensive interviews were conducted.

Maneuvering Colonial and Postcolonial Resistances with Poetry: A Comparative Study of Nazrul and Walcott

This article aims to place poems by Kazi Nazrul Islam of Bangla literature in a comparative study with those by the Caribbean poet Derek Walcott. Nazrul wrote when his country India was under British colonial rule and Walcott wrote when his Caribbean region was under British colonialism and in postcolonial period. The study becomes inevitable against a backdrop where comparative studies of Nazrul have been conducted with American and European authors who lack similar colonial backgrounds. Additionally, when Nazrul is compared with non-American and non-European authors, his Islamic identity, which transforms into his all-embracing humanity, is often omitted or sidelined. Thus, when poems by Nazrul and those by Walcott are in a comparative study, the two poets from two different marginalized nations exhibit conspicuous affinities in their poetic resistances. This is how this paper looks forward to doing a comparative study of the poems by Nazrul and those by Walcott by adopting the methods of Traditional Literary Criticism and a new comparative study as shaped by Zepetnek. The results which the study yields are that the poets maneuver identical poetic resistances by addressing the nation’s unity, revival of history, composition of unique literature, concern for the working-class people, and anti-colonial struggle. The results of the research may contribute to raising cultural awareness among marginalized nations about resisting aggression.

Contribution of Dalit Women to the Indian Freedom Struggle

As we all know, the Indian National movement was a series of historical events with the ultimate aim of ending British rule in India. The Indian independence movement was in constant ideological evolution. Essentially anti-colonial, it was supplemented by visions of independent, economic development with a secular, democratic, republican, and civil-libertarian political structure. Women's participation was a pillar of a national movement. Their participation in the Indian freedom struggle is a significant area of contemporary historical inquiry. Dalit women's roles, opinions, motivations, specificity, and extent in shaping the freedom movement were rarely acknowledged because they were part marginalised group of people who make up part of what is officially known as Scheduled Castes in India. This research will highlight how Dalit women contributed to such a valuable historical legacy of independent India.

‘Know the Game—Boxing’: Boxing in Colonial Kenya, 1895–1963

The history of organized boxing in colonial Kenya is complicated. The complexity stems from multiple facets undergirding colonialism. Until the last decade of British colonial rule in Kenya (1953–1963), organized boxing belonged to a tiny cadre of opulent white settlers in the colony. It became a sport for Blacks in the mid-1950s, especially impecunious Africans who appeared to colonial officials as lacking the qualities constituting morally acceptable citizens. This observation challenges the insinuation that British colonizers—administrators, missionaries, and settlers—introduced organized boxing in colonial Kenya exclusively for the indigenous people. This essay historicizes boxing in colonial Kenya (1895–1963). It is a socio-cultural history that grounds boxing within the broader history of colonization and contributes to the general history of sports and imperialism in Africa. The dynamics of class, race, citizenship, gender, power, and masculinity flow through the essay. Boxing in colonial Kenya is undocumented and undertheorized. The present work attempts to break this circle.

Accounting for informalization in Africa's extractive industry: Evidence from Ghana's small‐scale gold mining sector during the colonial period

AbstractIn this paper, we draw on the accountability and institutional theories to explicate the informalized state of Ghana's small‐scale gold mining sector as an exemplar of informalization of the extractive industry in Africa during the colonial period. We present a critical and historical perspective on the role of colonial subjugation that took the form of discriminatory policies and lack of accountability, in laying the foundations for the current challenges of continuous informalization of the indigenous gold mining sector and its implications on livelihoods, the economy and the environment in Ghana. We analyzed archival data on the mining industry in Ghana, consisting of official correspondences between colonial bureaucrats in Britain and Ghana, as well as colonial policies on mining, interpreted through the lenses of institutional theory. Specifically, we used records comprising letters, mineral policies, mineral output, and labor relations in the Gold Coast during the colonial period as well as minutes of meetings held by those governing mining enterprises that operated in Ghana before 1957. We also drew on periodic reports of the Ghana Chamber of Mines and their member enterprises, Government of Ghana white papers, parliamentary records among others. We found that the colonial authority, as the new institutional power with vested interest in the extractive industry, adopted discriminatory policies that banned small‐scale gold mining by indigenous population in Ghana, marginalizing the sector's operation to the advantage of foreign large‐scale gold miners. We demonstrate that the control of mineral resources by the colonial authority under new ownership structures disenfranchised the indigenous population and their right to the mineral resources of the Gold Coast. We argue that this institutionalized discriminatory policy, and the resulting lack of accountability is largely responsible for the ongoing informalization of Ghana's small‐scale gold mining sector. This paper contributes to the corpus of critical and historical scholarship that investigates the role of racialization and accountability during colonial period, but with notable distinction that departs from specific professional or disciplinary perspectives. Instead, it focuses on the colonial subjugation and exploitation of the small‐scale gold mining sector and its ongoing informalization that traces its roots to the era of British colonial rule in Ghana. It reiterates the need for accountability for these historical inequalities affecting the small‐scale mining operators, to facilitate the sector's formalization and to effectively control and manage the myriads of negative impacts associated with it.

Feedback and (Social) Loop: Biometric System and the Digital Empire in India

Feedback and (Social) Loop: Biometric System and the Digital Empire in India

‘Where Liberty is Not, There is My Country’: Nineteenth-Century American Abolitionist Writings on India and its Legacies

ABSTRACT This article examines nineteenth century American abolitionist writings on India. My sources include abolitionist newspapers, primarily focusing on William Lloyd Garrison’s newspaper the Liberator, but also incorporating other abolitionist newspapers. These include the Friend of Man and publications of individual abolitionists like Lydia Maria Child’s The History of the Condition of Women, in Various Ages and Nations. By looking at their writings on Christian missionary activities in India, Indian women, and British rule in India, this article argues that although many abolitionists Orientalized India, they at the same time found many parallels between Indian society and the US. Although they did not develop a full criticism towards colonialism in the antebellum period, their criticism towards Empire matured by the early twentieth century. My scholarly intervention centres on acknowledging the hitherto unknown role of abolitionist writings on India in the intellectual history of American abolitionism and US-India transnational history. By not fully engaging with India, the scholarship on US-India relations and abolitionism misses a critical dimension of the abolitionist movement’s intimate relationship with related causes of feminism, anti-clericalism, and anti-imperialism. Most importantly, this article demonstrates that abolitionist writings on India far exceeded Orientalism as the only frame of understanding.

Resisting carceral confinement in Guyana: Legacies of a colonial state

AbstractPrisoners in Guyana have been protesting about living conditions and an overtly punitive environment since British colonial rule (1814–1966). Drawing upon official investigations, colonial records and newspaper reports, this article analyses some of the key features of resistance, including uprisings, escapes and everyday breaches of prison rules from the 19th century to the present day. It argues that Guyanese society is still impacted by the punitive nature of colonial plantation society which compels and informs prisoner experiences and responses in the nation's prisons today.

A New Member of BRICS — Egypt

The article analyzes the political, economic and cultural development of Egypt over several millennia. It is claimed that Egypt is an ancient civilization, the «heart» of the Arab world and a recognized regional leader. The author explores the history of various state entities that existed on the territory of modern Egypt in the era of the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages and Modern times. The emphasis is consistently placed on the rule of the pharaohs, Egypt’s presence in the Persian and especially the Greco-Roman world, the periods of the Arab conquest, Ottoman and British rule, the functioning of the independent Kingdom of Egypt and the Arab Republic of Egypt that succeeded it in 1953. The article contains a detailed overview of key events in the country’s internal life over the past 70 years, as well as Cairo’s activities in the international arena, including participation in the Arab-Israeli wars, relations with global and regional actors in the second half of the XX – early XXI centuries, the current position of the state as one of the leaders of the African continent. It is indicated that Egypt ranks first in Africa in terms of GDP, third in terms of population, has serious scientific and technical potential and advanced financial system by regional standards, actively attracts foreign investment and new technologies. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt, while maintaining relations with Western powers, is intensely cooperating with new centers of power, including Russia. The author concludes that today the Arab Republic of Egypt is a powerful regional actor that is diversifying its foreign policy and economic ties, as reflected by the country’s entry into the BRICS.

Theory of Origin, Administration and Decline of the Great Vijayanagar Kingdom in South Asia

The Vijayanagar Empire is one of the most prominent and well-known empires of South Asia. The empire had arisen in the times of the Delhi Sultanate and sustained for more than a period of three Centuries. It saw four dynasties and its share wars and conflicts with neighboring Muslim forces. Vijayanagar Empire also had an admirable administration system, in the sense that it is counted as highly centralized, just and elaborate. This research paper seeks to examine the administrative and political structure of the Vijayanagar Empire and various nuances related to the same. In this research explores various facets of Vijayanagar’s grand history by critically examining various historical interpretations, including nationalist, colonial, and postcolonial perspectives. The approach seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of the complex factors that influenced its ascent and subsequent decline. It seeks to examine the view foreign travelers like Ibn Batuta, Fernao Nuniz and Dominigos Paes and accounts of prominent historians Ferishta that lived during the time of Vijayanagar like to the modern Scholars like Robert Sewell and Nilakanta Sastri in order to present comprehensive historiographical understanding on the Vijaynagar empire. The Vijayanagara Empire’s profound and enduring impact on the historical and cultural milieu of South India has left an indelible imprint across various domains, including art, architecture, literature, and societal practices. Through a meticulous examination of the ascendance and decline of this ancient civilization, one can glean invaluable insights into the intricate processes underpinning the formation and disintegration of polities in premodern South Asian contexts This research paper uses a variety of sources to shed light on the administrative and political conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire. It also sheds light on the changes in State Structure across the four dynasties, the impact of the administrative system on Justice, the impact of religion on State Politics and finally, the political factors that ultimately led to the end of the Greatest South Indian Empire in the Country.

ВОПРОСЫ СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ ПОЛИТИКИ И ЗАЩИТЫ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ В ИНДИЙСКОМ ГОСУДАРСТВЕ МИРЗО БАБУРА

The article reveals the social policy of Babur, the founder and first ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. Based on the analysis of Babur’s works “Baburname”, “Mubayin” and “Wasiyat”, his attitude towards representatives of different classes is examined.

Decline and Revival of Jute Industry

This research paper investigates India's jute business, documenting its beginnings, expansion, and influence on the economics and society of the country. Jute, sometimes known as the "golden fiber," has long been used in Indian manufacture and trade. It dives into important turning points, scientific advancements, economic shifts, and sociological implications that have shaped the jute industry's history. This article examines how the jute industry has developed and adapted to changing conditions by examining the historical context, legislative acts, and global market dynamics. The Jute Industry saw great expansion in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but has faced substantial obstacles in the twenty-first century, including as raw material limitations, the introduction of polymer substitutes, and worldwide rivalry in jute manufacture. Unfortunately, the jute industry has failed, resulting in worker devaluation and catastrophic situations in West Bengal, India's main jute producing state. This research paper will look at the circumstances that led to India's jute culture, its height during British rule, the aftereffects of the 1947 split, and the Indian government's efforts to reinvigorate and preserve the ailing industry both in the state and throughout the country.

Nationalism at Bay: The Chinese Nationalist Policy towards Hong Kong, 1946–1949

The Chinese Nationalist government's Hong Kong policy appeared to be successful from 1946 to 1949. While its official principle was to shelve the matter until civil conflicts ceased, the government adopted tough rhetoric and actions in dealing with any troubles deriving from the colony, which underlined the uncertain political future of Hong Kong that the British could not ignore. However, this tactic was a result of the Nationalists' failure to strike a balance between the public's and local authorities' clamour for the colony's immediate retrocession and the central government's postponement policy. As a result, not only did the matter of Hong Kong remain unresolved but the public discontent against the government escalated and the Sino‐British relationship reached its nadir. Yet the “unintended claim” that the failure in balancing caused posed a serious threat to British rule in Hong Kong and encouraged the latter to rethink the colony's future and how to administrate the colony peacefully in the post‐war era.

Aden's Strategic Position in the British Empire and its Relations with the British Raj in India

Aden, a port city in present-day Yemen, held a pivotal position in the British Empire, particularly in relation to British India. Its annexation in 1839 marked the beginning of a period of significant transformation and strategic importance. Aden served as a crucial coaling station, military base, and commercial hub, facilitating British control over maritime routes and regional trade. This paper investigates Aden's integration into the British Empire, its role in British colonial strategy, and its connections with British India, highlighting the intertwined histories and mutual influences. This research paper explores Aden's strategic significance within the British Empire and its intricate relations with British India during the British Raj. The paper delves into Aden's history under British rule, its role as a key military and commercial outpost and the socio-economic and political dynamics that shaped its interactions with British India. By examining primary sources, historical documents and scholarly analyses, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of Aden's place in colonial history and its enduring legacy.

Legitimising Occupation: The Quest for Popular Consent during the British Occupation of Germany, 1945–1949

This article explores the quest for legitimacy and popular consent during the British occupation of north-western Germany between 1945 and 1949. It does so through an analysis of two major propaganda campaigns that sought to publicly legitimise the British occupation at home and in Germany: ‘Germany under Control’, a large-scale exhibition put on display in London in 1946; and ‘Operation Stress’, the largest propaganda campaign in the British Zone, run in 1948 to legitimise food policies. Through an investigation of the internal rationale amongst British policymakers, the objectives behind the campaigns, the popular reception, and the broader outcomes, the article shows that both campaigns ended in failure and did not succeed in convincing the population of the need to maintain British rule in Germany. Propaganda was an ineffective tool to generate popular legitimacy at a time of austerity at home and severe material suffering in the British zone of occupation. As such, the British authorities encountered populations whose ‘moral economy’ and expectations from government were fundamentally opposed to the maintenance of the occupation. Both campaigns, therefore, epitomise the pitfalls of propaganda campaigns when facing bitter social realities and demonstrate the intricacies of the quest for legitimacy during military occupations.

COLONIAL MIZORAM: FOREST PRODUCE AND FARMING METHODS

Frequent raids of areas that the Lushais claimed as their hunting grounds occupied by the British culminated to the creation of the Lushai Hills district under the British rule. Maintenance of public order being the prime concerned, policies relating to forests and fields were sparse allowing traditional patterns of livelihoods to continue almost unchanged. The demand for forest produce was only outside the District as there was no local industries or enterprises that needed raw materials. Trade in forest produce and traders, however, were introduced in this period. Trade permits were issued, Mahal awarded for extraction along the river banks, and minor forest produce were covered by permit and Royalty was collected. Difficult terrain, poor transportation system and shortage of labour were impediments to timber trade. Lack of supervision and management practices rendered the timber traders a free hand, leading to unsystematic felling of trees and damage to productive potential of forest resources. Mizos continued to depend on jhums and local forest resources for livelihood during the whole period of colonial rule. Training of inhabitants to hunt for financial prizes by officials led to the extinction of a number of species. The calls for conservation and forestation was not effective as it was perceived that the hills and jhums land replenished quickly causing no discernible negative impact.