British India Research Articles

Information and Idioms in Circulation: Engaging the Minority Classification in 1930s India

Abstract Several studies have shown how a system of social classifications influenced the bureaucracy of British India when dealing with Indian society on a day-to-day basis. We know less, however, about how representatives of Indian society engaged such classifications and the information accompanying it to advance their own political agendas. This article examines how the classification of “minorities,” along with data connected to it, impacted discourse of Indian political actors in the early 1930s. The article presents a novel method to analyse first-person speech for themes and information content. It then applies the method to interventions by Indian delegates to the Sub-committee on Minorities of the India Round Table Conference, held in London, 1930–2. The article places the empirical investigation within a conceptual frame inspired by Ian Hacking's “looping effect.” Hacking attempts to capture how those classified negotiate imposed designations to advance agendas beneficial to themselves. The following study shows how Indian delegates engaged minority classification in a variety of ways in their political argumentation. The study also shows how information related to the minority classification was “looped” in speech by Indian actors to advance political claims and consolidate identities.

Inscribing Janaki Ammal: Biographies and the Act of Remembering

Abstract This paper examines the life and commemoration of E. K. Janaki Ammal, a groundbreaking Indian botanist and cytogeneticist. By analysing three biographical sources, the paper explores how these narratives portray Ammal as an exemplary female scientist, specifically by formulating a rigid picture of an ‘ideal female scientist’. While elucidating the career and gender-specific challenges faced by Ammal as a female scientist, the paper employs the methodological framework of feminist science studies to explore the creation, dissemination, and attribution of specific subjectivities. It examines how class, gender, and caste in India affected Ammal’s scientific career. Moreover, these biographies shed light on the role played by race in her scientific pursuits in nineteenth-century British India.

Pandit Brajabandhu Tripathy Sharma: An eminent luminary in the diverse realms of Orissa’s Ayurveda heritage

Abstract This study explores the life and contributions of Pandit Brajabandhu Tripathy Sharma, a renowned Ayurvedic practitioner and scholar from Odisha, India. Amid the limited healthcare resources of British India, Pandit Sharma dedicated his life to improving the health and well-being of his community. Drawing from his grandfather’s wisdom and inspired by his wife’s recovery from a snakebite, he emerged as a skilled clinician, renowned for his expertise in Nadi Pariksha (pulse examination), treating venereal diseases, and formulating personalized medicines. He established the Jeebanbandhu Aushadhalaya, which continues to offer traditional Ayurvedic treatments to the community. Beyond his clinical practice, Pandit Sharma was a prolific writer, authoring several books on Ayurveda, literature, and philosophy. His most notable works include “Drabya Guna Kalpadruma,” “Roga Vigyan,” and “Abhinava Dhanvantari,” which offer insights into medicinal plants, disease diagnosis, and treatment protocols. Pandit Sharma’s enduring legacy is marked by his dedication to Ayurveda, literary contributions, and philanthropic endeavors. His story continues to inspire aspiring practitioners and underscores the profound impact Ayurveda can have on individuals and communities.

THE FACTORS LEADING TO OUTWARD MIGRATION OF THE CHAKMAS FROM CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS

Chittagong and its hill tracts has been historically the homeland of various tribal groups. Such that when the British annexed the tracts, to suit their administration various laws were promulgated to protect and declared excluded it from generally laws applicable to the plains. These same laws were more or less similar to the hills tribal areas in different parts of British India. In fact, the tribal leaders of CHT having feared to be part of Islamic state choose to be with the liberal side, India. However, partition came with different story leaving the tribals to struggle for their political future. Unlike India, the then East Pakistan choose to subdue, if not abolished, the British protectionist policy for the Hill Tracts. Following the extremist policy, the new Pro Islamic State chose development policies harming the tribal demography. The Chakma being the largest tribal communities faced the atrocity of State the most. There, the present study analysed on how various state sponsored programmes had affect the tribal in CHT leading to outward migration as a result of - dam projects, non-tribal resettlement in tribal areas, counter insurgency programme.

An elusive line in an elusive frontier: Delineating the historical trajectory of the inner line in India’s northeast

The Inner Line remains one of the most contentious yet enduring legacies of colonial rule in the erstwhile British India’s northeast frontier. However, there is a major disconnect between the popular conception of the Inner Line as a legal shield protecting ‘vulnerable’ communities, and the scholarly deconstruction of the Inner Line as a colonial instrument designed for the exploitation of resources and the policing of hill communities. This article traces the historical trajectory of the Inner Line in India’s northeast and highlights the significant moments when the Inner Line was subjected to varying interpretations. It argues that the history of the Inner Line was characterised by flexibility and instability not only in its physical manifestation as a geographical marker but more particularly in its perceived intent and purpose. Delineating the shifts in the roles and functions that were ascribed to the Inner Line at different historical junctures, this article attempts to reconcile the varied and even contradictory understandings of the Inner Line that continue to persist in postcolonial Northeast India.

Beyond Frontiers: ‘Curzonic’ order, frontier expansion and the 1907 Romanes lecture

ABSTRACT George Curzon’s 1907 Romanes lecture, delivered soon after his tenure as Viceroy of India, articulated a vision of geopolitical order at a moment of British imperial decline. Curzon, however, argued that he lived at a historical zenith of frontier competition characterised by British India’s land power and complex frontiers. He invoked ancient precedents to assert the inevitability of modern imperial expansion, obscuring the specific geopolitical and historical material conditions of India’s colonialised frontier spaces. Nonetheless, the lecture illustrates how India’s ‘walling’ proceeded through the projection of the Government of India’s border power and through imperialist ‘protection’, client rule and commerce.

India-Bangladesh Conflict: An Overview

Abstract: The India-Bangladesh conflict primarily revolves around historical, territorial and resource-related disputes that have shaped the bilateral relationship between the two neighbouring South Asian countries. Emerging from the Partition of British India in 1947 and the subsequent creation of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), tensions escalated during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, which resulted in Bangladesh's independence with Indian military support. Key areas of conflict have included the demarcation of borders, particularly over the disputed enclaves, the maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal, and the sharing of transboundary river waters, such as the Ganges and the Teesta. While the Land Boundary Agreement of 2015 resolved several border issues, the water-sharing disputes remain unresolved, particularly concerning the Teesta River, which is critical to Bangladesh’s agriculture. Additionally, non-traditional security concerns such as illegal migration, cross-border insurgencies, and trafficking continue to challenge bilateral relations. Nevertheless, India and Bangladesh have strengthened their cooperation in recent years, particularly in trade, energy and regional security, while both countries seek to balance their national interests within a framework of diplomacy and economic interdependence. This overview highlights that while conflict persists in certain areas, India and Bangladesh have made significant strides in resolving disputes and fostering collaboration, although challenges remain in ensuring equitable resource distribution and addressing mutual security concerns.

Inheritance, Marriage and Adoption: Changing Judicial Practices in Hyderabad State

Although Hindu banking firms in Hyderabad state had an advantage over Muslim ones because Hindu law allowed adoptions while Islamic law did not, adoptions were nonetheless a source of great conflict and division for firms. Before the late nineteenth century, inheritance practices in Hyderabad privileged both Hindu and Muslim nobles and officials, but as Hyderabad’s courts and advocates began to be connected to courts and advocates based in British India, contesting family members turned from the family and customary law generally administered in Hyderabad to the evolving standardisation of Hindu and Islamic law in British India. Hyderabad’s government, however, continued to privilege Hindu and Muslim nobles well into the twentieth century, although more research is needed about changing judicial practices in Hyderabad and other native states.

Medicalizing the Body and the Locale: Kala Azar and Disease Thinking in Assam, 1824-1900.

The article examines two seemingly unconnected occurrences at the nineteenth-century north east frontier of British India. The first is the production of a pathological space via moral, social, and cultural codes enacted by medical topographies on the region since the first Anglo-Burmese war (1824-1826) and the subsequent rise of disease thinking. The second is the ambivalence in disease thinking that is brought to fore through the mysterious malady called kala azar (visceral leishmaniasis), which was geographically designated as Assam fever. This article contends that the geographical designation of kala azar as Assam fever is not just coincidental or a nosological confusion of the late nineteenth century but rather has its origin in the preceding pathological carving of space at the frontier. Further, it explores the troubled ontology between research on malaria and kala azar investigations to show that the old codes enacted by medical topographies hinged upon the era of laboratory medicine.

Impact of British Policy on the Social Mobility and Employment Opportunities of Eurasian Women in 19th and 20th Century of India

This article aims to investigate the multifaceted impact of British colonialism on Eurasian women's employment opportunities in 19th and early 20th-century India. It examined how societal expectations initially confined Eurasian women to marriage, particularly to European officers. However, colonial infrastructure development and changing social norms led to a diversification of employment options. The 1901 Madras census data revealed a significant number of Eurasian women working in various fields, including orphanages, education (teachers), healthcare (nurses, midwives), and skilled trades (seamstresses, milliners). Building on this foundation, the study aims to expand the understanding of working Eurasian women across all of India. Notably, even married women often continued working, contributing to household income. The discussion acknowledged the limitations of historical data, particularly the potential undercounting of Eurasian women in prostitution statistics. Overall, the analysis highlighted the complex interplay between colonialism, social hierarchies, and economic realities that shaped the evolving employment landscape for Eurasian women in British India.

PLIGHT OF PARTITION IN KHUSHWANT SINGH’S TRAIN TO PAKISTAN

In August 1947, the British left Indian Subcontinent after almost 200 years. British India was divided into two independent Nations - India and Pakistan. The distribution of human was based on the religion. Pakistan had the majority of Muslims while India having Hindu majority. This division of Indian subcontinent and the formation of two independent nations is known as ‘partition’ in history. The leaders who dreamt of the partition wanted to free the land from the oppression of British Raj. But they couldn’t guess that right after the end of a struggle story, another will start. A huge religious clash emerged throughout the land. Muslims were forced to march towards Pakistan while Hindus and Sikhs were forced to march towards India. Most of them literally had no idea why the English left India, why they are leaving their homes and whether they will ever return or not. Khushwant Singh's novel Train to Pakistan pictures how a peaceful land turns into a death-land after the partition. The paper seeks to shed lights on the plight of Partition detailed in Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan and attempts to analyze the horrible experience of puzzled common people.

Many Personas of Jim Corbett

Jim Corbett was a man of many talents, revered for his diverse contributions to wildlife and conservation. He first gained fame as a remarkably skilled hunter, known for tracking and eliminating dreaded man-eating tigers and leopards in British India, a feat that saved numerous lives. However, Corbett's legacy extends far beyond his hunting achievements; he was also a pioneering conservationist who raised his voice for safeguarding the very wildlife he once hunted. As a naturalist and gifted writer, Corbett shared his experiences and insights through a series of classic books that continue to inspire environmental stewardship. His deep connection to the people and culture of India's Kumaon region further solidified his reputation as a figure of lasting respect and admiration.

The conclusion of the Soviet-Afghan “Treaty of Friendship” in the context of new archival sources

New archival documents published in Russia and the United Kingdom make it possible to identify the stages and peculiarities of the negotiation process between Afghanistan and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic on the conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship of 1921. The initial aim of Soviet diplomacy in drafting this document was to turn Afghanistan into a foothold for subversive activities against British India. The Afghan Emir Amanullah Khan, in turn, wanted to obtain military and financial aid from Soviet Russia through the Treaty of Friendship to fight Great Britain. His second goal was to strengthen Afghanistan’s position in Turkestan, where he wanted to create a confederation of Central Asian states under his control. As the declassified archival documents of the NKID show, the Soviet government was not prepared to pay such a high price for an agreement with Afghanistan. During the negotiations, there were many pauses caused by the aggravation of Soviet-Afghan rivalry over Bukhara and the amount of Soviet assistance to Amanullah Khan. However, both sides understood the need to establish strong partnerships to stabilize the international position of the RSFSR and independent Afghanistan. For this reason, after difficult negotiations in Kabul and Moscow, the Soviet-Afghan Treaty of Friendship was concluded on February 28, 1921. It allowed Soviet Russia to strengthen its position in Central Asia, creating a significant counterbalance to British intrigues in the region.

From Lahore to New York: Changing Identity of Lahure in Modern Nepali Literature

This article assesses the changing identity of lahure in modern Nepali literature. Beginning with the etymology ‘lahure’ that has its one-to-one correspondence with Lahore in the then British India, this article attempts to map the expansion of that particular identity right from Nepali youths’ entrance to Lahore to serve as a mercenary for Ranjit Singh, the Khalsa warrior king and interestingly not for the British colonials, as early as 1809, that is some time before the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816 that officially opened the gate for Nepali youths to the Company Army. Deriving impetus from Craig Calhoun’s discourse of identity in reading Tulachan Ale’s Manipurko Ladai ko Sawai as the early record of the formation of the lahure identity and Sirjana Sharma’s Golden Gate as the contemporary record of such identity, this article analyzes how the identity of a lahure has significantly changed from the early Nepali youths, that too exclusively males, who visited Lahore as the pioneer migrants to British India to the Nepalis who migrate to the United States after winning lottery via the Diversity Visa Program. This article scrutinizes the loose definition of lahure in Nepali society that not only transcends the etymological meaning of the term but also deconstructs the notion of stereotypical adherence to a specific gender, that is, male.

India-Burma (Myanmar) Relations under British India Administration prior to 1937 Separation: Influx of Indians and Awakening of Nationalist Movements in Burma

The paper focuses on India-Burma relations under British India’s administration prior to the 1937 separation. As for data gathering, content analysis was adopted. The findings are analyzed through two perspectives: the influx of the Indians into Burma and the awakening of Burma’s nationalist movements related to Mahatma Gandhi. The findings of this study demonstrates that the influx of the Indian immigrants had eventually gave rise to the Burmese nationalist movements and the separation of Burma from British India was influenced by the Indian nationalists as well as a thought by Mahatma Gandhi that Burma cannot be part of India.

Aden's Strategic Position in the British Empire and its Relations with the British Raj in India

Aden, a port city in present-day Yemen, held a pivotal position in the British Empire, particularly in relation to British India. Its annexation in 1839 marked the beginning of a period of significant transformation and strategic importance. Aden served as a crucial coaling station, military base, and commercial hub, facilitating British control over maritime routes and regional trade. This paper investigates Aden's integration into the British Empire, its role in British colonial strategy, and its connections with British India, highlighting the intertwined histories and mutual influences. This research paper explores Aden's strategic significance within the British Empire and its intricate relations with British India during the British Raj. The paper delves into Aden's history under British rule, its role as a key military and commercial outpost and the socio-economic and political dynamics that shaped its interactions with British India. By examining primary sources, historical documents and scholarly analyses, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of Aden's place in colonial history and its enduring legacy.

Notes on an Interview with M. Masud R. Khan

In this article, I explain the background of my historic interview, published in this issue of Psychoanalysis and History, with M. Masud R. Khan. Originally, four interviews with Khan were conducted and excerpts from each were chosen to construct the interview as published in this journal. I describe setting up the four interviews that took place in Khan’s flat in London. My goal in the first of these interviews was to discuss Khan’s observations of Donald W. Winnicott, but, after that, the interviews focused on Khan’s own experiences. I consider the question of how truthful Khan was in the published interview, in the light of Khan’s admission that he had a habit of ‘spinning yarns’ and presenting ‘fictions.’ One of the main topics of the interview is Khan’s meeting with John Bowlby soon after Khan, in his early twenties, moved to London from British India. The story, as Khan tells it, is dramatic. I shared with Bowlby what Khan had said, and Bowlby in a letter questioned Khan’s account. I present what Bowlby wrote to me about the meeting between Bowlby and Khan.

Strain variation and anomalous climate synergistically influence cholera pandemics.

Explanations for the genesis and propagation of cholera pandemics since 1817 have remained elusive. Evolutionary pathogen change is presumed to have been a dominant factor behind the 7th "El Tor" pandemic, but little is known to support this hypothesis for preceding pandemics. The role of anomalous climate in facilitating strain replacements has never been assessed. The question is of relevance to guide the understanding of infectious disease emergence today and in the context of climate change. We investigate the roles of climate and putative strain variation for the 6th cholera pandemic (1899-1923) using newly assembled historical records for climate variables and cholera deaths in provinces of former British India. We compare this historical pandemic with the 7th (El Tor) one and with the temporary emergence of the O139 strain in Bangladesh and globally. With statistical methods for nonlinear time series analysis, we examine the regional synchrony of outbreaks and associations of the disease with regional temperature and rainfall, and with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). To establish future expectations and evaluate climate anomalies accompanying historical strain replacements, climate projections are generated with multi-model climate simulations for different 50-year periods. The 6th cholera pandemic featured the striking synchronisation of cholera outbreaks over Bengal during the El Niño event of 1904-07, following the invasion of the Bombay Presidency with a delay of a few years. Accompanying anomalous weather conditions are similar to those related to ENSO during strain replacements and pandemic expansions into Africa and South America in the late 20th century. Rainfall anomalies of 1904-05 at the beginning of the large cholera anomaly fall in the 99th percentile of simulated changes for the regional climate. Evolutionary pathogen change can act synergistically with climatic conditions in the emergence and propagation of cholera strains. Increased climate variability and extremes under global warming provide windows of opportunity for emerging pathogens.

An Interview with M. Masud R. Khan

In an interview created in 1981–1982, M. Masud R. Khan told of his background as a Muslim from a wealthy landed family in British India. He narrated how he came to London in his early twenties. He met with John Bowlby to inquire about receiving a psychoanalysis. Bowlby mistakenly thought he wanted to become a psychoanalyst. Intrigued by the idea, Khan ended up applying for training as a psychoanalyst and was accepted to and then completed the training course. The interview includes his anecdotes about Melanie Klein, Donald W. Winnicott, and Anna Freud. In his supervision with Klein, she provided some ‘marvelous interpretations’, he noted, but, in his view, she undervalued the analysands’ personal experiences. Not only did he have an analysis with Winnicott, but he assisted Winnicott in the elder analyst's writing. Despite their long association, Khan claimed that he and Winnicott respected but disliked each other. Anna Freud generously helped Khan when he was ill. She also told him that her father, Sigmund Freud, largely gave up on friendships with men after his breaks with Carl Jung and Otto Rank and the death of Karl Abraham. Khan described his work-in-progress on Virginia Woolf.

Empires of Complaint: Mughal Law and the Making of British India, 1765–1793, by Robert Travers

<i>Empires of Complaint: Mughal Law and the Making of British India, 1765–1793</i>, by Robert Travers