Brick Design Research Articles

Evaluating the environmental impacts of brick production from waste plastic

The building and construction sector accounts for nearly 40% of the total process-related greenhouse gas emissions, out of which 11% of emissions are related to the production of building materials. To achieve environmental sustainability, it is imperative that these emissions be minimized through a novel approach. We propose that instead of using conventional building techniques of wood-based construction for interior walls of a house, bricks manufactured from waste plastic be used. In this paper, a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) is carried out for the building materials used in the construction of interior walls for a standard 2450 sq. ft. home, and the results are compared to the bricks manufactured from waste plastic. Plastic bricks are manufactured by sorting and shredding the waste plastic and then bailing it in a superheated steam environment. The LCA is modeled in SimaPro 9.5.0.1, using the Ecoinvent v3 database and the ReCiPe Midpoint (H) 2016 impact assessment method. The results indicate that the use of waste plastics in construction leads to reduction in the water consumption by 26%, terrestrial ecotoxicity by 59%, mineral resource scarcity by 81%, and the land use by 99% when compared to conventional construction activities. Our research work provides a novel pathway towards sustainable construction practices through this life cycle assessment study, and the results can be further improved by using eco-friendly energy sources and natural resource-based adhesives. Future work needs to be carried out to explore the mechanical and structural properties of the bricks and their use in large-scale commercial applications, as well as innovative brick designs that eliminate the need for adhesives.

Utilizing CNC Router Machine to Construct a Prototype Incorporation Principles of Solid-based Rapid Prototyping Process and Interlocking Brick Design

Utilizing CNC Router Machine to Construct a Prototype Incorporation Principles of Solid-based Rapid Prototyping Process and Interlocking Brick Design

Numerical study on steel flow dynamic behaviour in a round mould under the effect of a swirling flow brick design in tundish

Swirling flow submerged entry nozzle technology is one of the important methods to optimise the continuous casting of steel. In this study, a novel swirling flow brick design in tundish was proposed to achieve a swirling flow submerged entry nozzle. Numerical simulations were carried out to investigate steel flow dynamic behaviour in a round mould under the effect of new designs. The results showed that a rotational steel flow was generated inside the submerged entry nozzle by using both two-inlet and three-inlet brick designs. Due to the rotational flow momentum, molten steel from the submerged entry nozzle outlet moved towards the mould wall. Such a flow pattern eliminated the impinging flow in mould, which was generally formed in conventional single-port submerged entry nozzle casting. When using swirling flow brick designs, the whole flow field in the submerged entry nozzle and mould exhibited a dynamic change. As the side-inlet number of bricks decreased from three-inlet to two-inlet, the velocity fluctuation range was reduced from ± 63.3% to ± 8.9%. Moreover, the swirling flow intensity in the submerged entry nozzle was decreased by about 40%. In addition, a high-pressure region above atmospheric pressure was obtained near the submerged entry nozzle wall by using new designs, which is helpful to prevent air from being sucked into the submerged entry nozzle.

Design and application of concrete bricks using phase change materials

Design and application of concrete bricks using phase change materials

Assessment of thermal characteristics of building materials made from non-commercial wood

Currently, the forest industry of the Russian Federation is experiencing difficulties with the sale of hardwood pulpwood, which necessitates the search for new technical and technological solutions for its use. The paper describes the design of wooden bricks made from hardwood. Wooden brick is made by gluing lamellas, oriented in a certain way, together into wood panels, followed by gluing the panels together through a layer of veneer. The slats and veneer are made from hardwood. The bricks have a trapezoidal shape with tenons and mortices for ease of connection when installing wall structures. The authors made an assessment of the thermal characteristics of wall structures assembled from these bricks. The calculation was performed using the example of four cities in the European part of Russia, which differ noticeably in climatic conditions. The calculation showed that for all considered climatic conditions this material is suitable for the construction of walls of buildings and structures of a lower importance class with limited service life and the presence of people in them, where there are premises with dry or normal operating mode, ensuring the level of resource saving required by construction regulations without additional insulation. In more difficult climatic operating conditions, additional insulation of facades will be required to ensure the required level of resource saving.

Analysis of the technical feasibility of ecological bricks based on PET plastic and bottle glass for the reduction of solid waste pollution in a metropolis

Contamination by non-biodegradable solid waste is worrying, mainly due to PET and glass waste, because they are used for single use such as bottles or containers. In addition, global production in 2021 of these materials was 139 million tons and 23.4 million tons, respectively. Therefore, the objective of this research is to develop an efficient design of bricks composed of cement, PET plastic and glass, evaluating both their physical properties and their mechanical properties to reduce said waste. For this, 4 mixtures based on cement, sand and glass were designed with proportions of 1:2:0.5 and 1:2:1. In addition, 5% and 10% PET were incorporated into these proportions. It should be noted that the PET was ground to a size of 0.2 cm and the glass was ground to a size of 2 cm. The tests carried out show that the 1:2:0.5 dosage with 10% PET is the most efficient, since it obtained a compressive strength of 77.99 kg/cm2 after 28 days. Therefore, it exceeds the minimum value of 70 kg/cm2 after 28 days to be classified as type II brick according to the masonry standard E.070. Likewise, said unit complied with the warping, dimensional variation and absorption tests required by the aforementioned standard.

A comparative analysis of compression bearing capacity in recycled concrete brick walls and composite walls incorporating coal-ash blocks.

In the face of the problem of waste disposal in the demolition of concrete structures, a composite wall composed of recycled concrete bricks and fly ash blocks was proposed, and based on the previous thermal performance research, its axial compression performance were further studied. Four types of walls were designed and constructed: (1) clay brick masonry (CBM), (2) recycled concrete brick masonry (RBM), (3) bilateral clay bricks masonry with coal-ash blocks sandwich insulation wall (CFCM), and (4) bilateral recycled concrete bricks masonry with coal-ash blocks sandwich insulation wall (RFRM). The test results showed that recycled concrete brick masonry exhibited a higher bearing capacity than clay brick masonry. The ultimate load of RBM was 15% higher than that of CBM. Moreover, the ultimate load of CFCM was 21% higher than that of CBM. Following the addition of sandwich coal-ash blocks in RBM, its ultimate load increased by over 42% than that of CBM. Following the addition of coal-ash blocks sandwich in both clay and recycled concrete bricks masonry, both the bearing capacity and strain exhibited improvement, the yielding load and compressive strength of them increased. Thus, it could be concluded that coal-ash blocks improved its bearing capacity. Based on the analysis of the axial compression tests, a theoretical computational model was developed and a computational expression to explain the compressive bearing capacity of a two-sided brick with coal-ash blocks sandwich insulation wall. Comparisons between the test ultimate loads (FT) and the estimated ultimate loads (FE) confirmed the accuracy of the theoretical calculation model for the compressive bearing capacity. Thus, theoretical computational models are highly recommended for the design of two-sided bricks with insulating walls constructed from coal-ash blocks being sandwiched together. This study provides a theoretical basis for the engineering application of recycled concrete brick wall and fly ash block composite wall.

Bayesian-based optimization of concrete infill pattern for enhancing thermal insulation performance

This study explores the impact of vertical and horizontal configurations on thermal insulation in cellular concrete brick design, aiming to identify optimal insulation patterns. Results indicate that under a constant volume (67%) of coconut fiber, appropriate geometric changes can reduce thermal conductivity by around 10% (from 0.198 W/(m·K) to 0.178 W/(m·K)). Bayesian inference is employed to construct a bi-directional network, providing a more intuitive understanding of variable relationships. A probabilistic-driven search space reduction approach is proposed, improving candidate selection efficiency and reducing the number of assessments. The study introduces a Bayesian Genetic Algorithm (BGA), which outperforms the genetic algorithm when the mutation rate is 0.1.

The New Standard Is Biodigital: Durable and Elastic 3D-Printed Biodigital Clay Bricks

In a previously published study, the authors explained the formal design efficiency of the 3D-printed biodigital clay bricks 3DPBDCB: a project that aimed to change the conventional methods of clay brick design and mass production. This was achieved by employing the behavioural algorithms of reaction-diffusion and the shortest path that were extracted from the exact material physical properties and hydrophilic behaviours of clay and controlled material deposition 3D printing to create sustainable clay bricks. Sustainability in their use in the built environment and their production processes, with full potential sustainability aspects such as passive cooling, thermal and acoustical insulation, and bio receptivity. The current work studies the mechanical properties of the 3D-printed biodigital clay bricks as elastic and durable clay bricks whose properties depend mainly on their geometrical composition and form. Each of the three families of the 3D-printed biodigital clay bricks (V1, V2, V3) includes the linear model of a double line of 0.5 cm thickness and a bulk model of 55% density were tested for compression and elasticity and compared to models of standard industrial clay bricks. The results revealed that the best elasticity pre-cracking was achieved by the V2 linear model, followed by the V3 linear model, which also achieved the highest post-cracking elasticity-enduring until 150 N pre-cracking and 200 N post-cracking, which makes the V3 linear model eligible for potential application in earthquake-resistant buildings. While the same model V3-linear achieved the second-best compressive strength enduring until 170 N. The best compressive strength was recorded by the V1 linear and bulk model enduring up to 240 N without collapsing, exceeding the strength and resistance of the industrial clay bricks with both models, where the bulk and the perforated collapsed at 200 N and 140 N, respectively. Thus, the mass production and integration of the V1 bulk and linear model and the V3 linear model are recommended for the construction industry and the architectural built environment for their multi-aspect sustainability and enhanced mechanical properties.

Microencapsulated PCM in the cement brick cavity: analysis of melting and solidification behaviour

ABSTRACT The use of latent heat storage systems using phase change materials is becoming increasingly popular for passive building cooling applications. This paper introduces a novel cement brick design in which a microencapsulated PCM MEP29 is directly filled into the brick holes near the outer wall. The melting and solidification pattern of the PCM in the brick cavity is analysed numerically by shifting the location of the PCM holes from the outer to inner wall sides by 30, 40, 50, and 75 mm, respectively. Melting and solidification are both delayed when the PCM position is moved towards the centre of the brick. The melting time for mPCM 75 is 57 min longer than for mPCM 30 brick, with a 25-minute delay in the start of solidification. Furthermore, the unique brick design with offset PCM holes reduces the chance of heat reentry into the living space during solidification.

Climate-Resilient Robotic Facades: Architectural Strategies to Improve Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Urban Environments using Robotic Assembly

In the context of dense urban environments and climate change, pedestrians’ thermal experience plays an increasingly significant role in people’s health and well-being. In this research, the authors combine the fields of architecture, climate-responsive design, and robotic fabrication with the goal of investigating strategies to improve outdoor thermal comfort for pedestrians in cities with frequent extreme heat events. Based on a case study in the city of Munich, this paper presents findings into the technological approaches and methods for location-specific climate-resilient brick facades using robotic assembly. To achieve this goal, different bricklaying patterns were investigated to create a self-shading effect and thus reduce solar radiation and ultimately achieve an improved thermal condition for pedestrians moving along urban facades at street level. Using computer-aided microclimate simulation, generic self-shading brick pattern designs were tailored to highly location-specific microclimate requirements. Robotic assembly technology was used to produce such tailored, non-standard brickwork facades. The results of this research led to a data-informed design process with a demonstrator object being realized at 1:1 scale with a height of 2 m and a length of 3 m using a collaborative robot on site. Thermal measurements on the built demonstrator provided indications of reduced surface temperatures despite high solar radiation and thus validated the location-specific self-shading effects according to solar radiation simulation.

Essential Transformation of Mortise-and-Tenon Joints for Earthquake-Resistant Contemporary Housing (a Case Study in the Aceh Province, Indonesia)

Mortise-and-tenon joints reinforced with split wedges and dowels are traditional joint systems that have been the mainstay of vernacular houses for Acehnese people to endure earthquakes for centuries. This joint is no longer used now because the construction of houses uses conventional rigid frame techniques. The essential transformation of this connection in the product is urgently needed in Aceh because many conventionally landed houses experienced cracks and collapsed during several recent earthquakes. This paper aims to analyze the essential parts of mortise-and-tenon joints based on the transformation of vernacular houses in Aceh. In-depth interviews were conducted using open-ended questions with the homeowners of 18 vernacular houses in the Aceh province, who were selected using the purposive sampling method to determine the characteristics of house construction based on geographical areas. Simultaneously, direct observations were made at home (including measurements, redrawing, and photo-taking). The data collection also uses literature study techniques to examine further the principles of mortise-and-tenon joints' performance against earthquakes and obtain the latest technological information regarding joints whose performance is identical to mortise-and-tenon joints when facing earthquake forces. This paper suggests that a good alternative to conventionally constructed joint systems is an Aceh concept that uses an interlocking brick design, namely in the composition of an H-profile with a distinctive color to support the uniqueness of the interlocking shape. This interlocking design has the essential mortise-and-tenon joints of Aceh vernacular houses that are earthquake-friendly, ecological, cost-effective, and quick to build.

The New Boundaries of 3D-Printed Clay Bricks Design: Printability of Complex Internal Geometries

The building construction sector is undergoing one of the most profound transformations towards the digital transition of production. In recent decades, the advent of a novel technology for the 3D printing of clay opened up new sustainable possibilities in construction. Some architectural applications of 3D-printed clay bricks with simple internal configurations are being developed around the world. On the other hand, the full potential of 3D-printed bricks for building production is still unknown. Scientific studies about the design and printability of 3D-printed bricks exploiting complex internal geometries are completely missing in the related literature. This paper explores the new boundaries of 3D-printed clay bricks realized with a sustainable extrusion-based 3D clay printing process by proposing a novel conception, design, and analysis. In particular, the proposed methodological approach includes: (i) conception and design; (ii) parametric modeling; (iii) simulation of printability; and (iv) prototyping. The new design and conception aim to fully exploit the potential of 3D printing to realize complex internal geometry in a 3D-printed brick. To this aim, the research investigates the printability of internal configuration generated by using geometries with well-known remarkable mechanical properties, such as periodic minimal surfaces. In conclusion, the results are validated by a wide prototyping campaign.

Upgrading the Glass Bead Making Furnace for Ease of Operation: A Case Study of the Masaga Glass Guild

The glass bead making furnace of the Masaga Glass Guild in Bida, Niger State Nigeria was evaluated in comparison to those of Ghana (Krobo) and India (Firozabad); it was discovered that the Masaga furnace falls short of an efficient system for sustainable work that should facilitate appreciable productivity. Furthermore, the furnace is not built with refractory bricks, implying that it has a short life span; the furnace is operated by hand-worked traditional cloth bellows requiring sustained and strenuous efforts over a relatively long period of time; Following this assessment, efforts were directed at modifying the furnace by producing design drawings of the modified furnace, design and production of refractory bricks from the design drawing, constructing the modified furnace structure using the refractory bricks, producing suitable furniture for the furnace and subsequently, devising a suitable mechanical blower device as an alternative to the manually worked bellows for the supply of combustion air. Consequently, a furnace was developed which eliminates the strenuous manual working of the bellows as well as the bellow operator and ensures that a single individual can work unassisted at the furnace in the process of glassware production.

Numerical investigations of convective heat transfer for lattice settings in brick tunnel Kiln: CFD simulation with experimental validation

The flow characteristics and heat transfer around brick model settings are very important fields of investigation to get over the problem of energy consumption and production process. The present paper introduces a numerical investigation of convective heat transfer for lattice settings in brick tunnel kiln. A numerical CFD analysis using the ANSYS-FLUENT package is used to simulate convective heat and fluid flow inside the cooling zone of the tunnel kiln. Three different settings are simulated and validated with published data. In addition, a fourth new setting is designed and simulated numerically. The results reveal that using CFD k-ω BSL turbulent model gives a good agreement with the published experimental data compared to the other turbulence models. Therefore, a new design of bricks used in buildings could be produced by examining it firstly using CFD. It can be used in study new settings and give acceptable results. Moreover, the longitudinal and transversal average Nusselt number are improved by increasing the space between bricks and columns. As the brick spacing increased from 5 to 16 mm a maximum augmentation of about 15.3% is founded in longitudinal brick at wall column in setting 11 at Re = 14,674. While, as column spacing increased from 19 to 58 mm a maximum augmentation of about 15.66% is gained for a longitudinal brick at the middle column in setting 11 at Re = 14,674.

Innovating traditional building materials in Chembe, Malawi: assessing post-consumer waste glass and burnt clay bricks for performance and circularity

ABSTRACT Across the Global South, post-consumer waste glass is an often dumped, and under-utilised resource. Even in Malawi, with widespread return schemes, many barriers exist, inhibiting reuse, and necessitating appropriate solutions. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the performance of post-consumer waste glass as a coarse aggregate within burnt clay bricks, and to assess the feasibility for the recovery of this waste material from dumped stocks within Chembe. Using a brick design and testing methodology, which could be replicated within a rural African context, we tested a range of glass additions (both quantity and size of particle) for compressive strength and water absorption properties. Our results suggest that waste glass can function as a performance enhancer, with positive effects on compressive strength observed at up to 10% crushed waste glass content. These findings support existing literature on glass waste additions, yet show that optimal results can also be had with post-consumer waste glass and in low income, and less technology-reliant contexts. Moreover, our findings suggest that current above-ground stocks of waste glass are sufficient to support the production of hybrid building materials for decades, however further innovation is necessary in order to achieve a sustainable mode of practice.

MULTISCALE APPROACH OF THE EQUIVALENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MODIFIED FOAM-FILLED AND NON-FILLED HOLLOW BRICK AND A BRICK WALL

The energy loss through building components resulting in higher energy consumption, thus energy saving has become an essential aspect in design and comfort. This study aims to optimize the thermal insulation of red clay bricks used in the walls of buildings by using a multiscale method. The finite element approach in ABAQUS software has been used to simulate the bricks under different configurations and conditions. Due to cost and time challenges and difficulties in simulation and complex calculations, simplified and applicable equations have been derived to calculate thermal insulation properties. The results show that the paper’s brick design has a significant thermal conductivity reduction that could reach more than one-third of the other corresponding studies. The study goes to fill the hollow bricks by the insulation polyurethane foam (PUF) and comparing the results with air hollow bricks. Besides its other advantages, the outcomes reveal that using the PUF has a noticeable desired-influence in thermal insulation when considering the heat transfer by convection and radiation inside the air cavity of bricks.

Methodology for Determining the Brick Design and the Possibility of its Application in Construction and Architecture

Methodology for Determining the Brick Design and the Possibility of its Application in Construction and Architecture

Exploration of types of ventilated air chambers to improve thermal efficiency of bricks in fired clay

The products and construction systems for facades regulate energy transfer in the architectural envelopes. Therefore, this paper developed an exploration of types of ventilated air chambers to improve thermal efficiency of brick for masonry walls in fired clay, taking into account their role in buildings. The methodology involves three fundamental stages: design, simulation and analysis of results. The design stage proposes 3 brick typologies with ventilated air chamber. The second stage simulates the behavior of the heat transfer and heat fluxes of the models in extreme climatic conditions of San Jose de Cucuta, Colombia, in September in Ansys software through the finite element method. Finally, the analysis of results studies the relationship between the incorporation of the ventilated chamber, shape of the product and heat transfer of proposed models, in comparison with the multi-perforated brick. The results indicate that thermal benefit varies between 2.52 °C and 3.64 °C in the interior surfaces of proposed bricks. Moreover, incorporation of ventilated air chamber mitigates heat transfer and reduces energy concentration in the interior sides of new bricks design. In conclusion, innovation in brick design proves that new forms proposition generates added values such as thermal benefits related to comfort. This aspect is important to consider because it establishes a transformative perspective for brick industry through an innovative market that is committed to sustainability of architectural envelopes in order to reduce energy consumption of buildings.

Improving thermal resistance of lightweight concrete hollow bricks: A numerical optimisation research for a typical masonry unit

Heat loss/gain through the walls accounts for about 30% of the total building energy losses. Bricks are indispensable parts of buildings as a very common masonry wall unit; hence the present work aims at optimising thermal resistance of lightweight concrete hollow bricks through a CFD based numerical research. The optimisation is conducted over a certain number of independent variables such as hollow geometry and design, number of hollow rows across the heat transfer path and hollow depth for natural convection aspects within the hollow enclosure. A reliable CFD software ANSYS FLUENT 18.1 is utilised in the research. The accuracy of the CFD results is justified first through the reference model brick (RMB). Overall heat transfer coefficient (U-value) of RMB is determined to be 0.916 W/m2. K, which is in good accordance with the manufacturer’s data report (0.9 W/m2.K). Following this, parametric research is carried out for various scenarios to optimise the U-value as a function of brick mass. Based on the findings, the maximum improvement is found to be about 53% (U-value 0.43 W/m2. K) through the case of B48 which has an h-ratio of 1 (continuous hollow from top to bottom). Moreover, depending on the increase in h-ratio, it is achieved that the thermal performance of the bricks proportionally increases. The minimum weight of the brick design (B45) is found to be 7.645 kg and the corresponding U-value is obtained as 0.44 W/m2. K.