Brand Level Research Articles

Determination of acrylamide levels in selected commercial and traditional foods in Syria

Purpose: To determine acrylamide (AA) levels in different brands of commercial and traditional foodstuffs available in Syria by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometery (UPLCMS).Methods: A total of 63 samples were analyzed. Food samples were defatted by hexane and then extracted with methanol 98 % in a vortex mixer. Thereafter, Carrez I and Carrez II were added to precipitate proteins from the co-extractives and then centrifuged to obtain a clear aqueous extract that was evaporated to dryness. The extract was dissolved in 1 mL of water, eluted through a preconditioned Oasis HLB cartridge and then filtered. The filtrate was analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS to determine AA content.Results: Among the commercial foods tested, the highest acrylamide quantity was found in potato products (396 ± 3.59 – 1844 ± 5.29 μg kg−1) and the lowest in corn products (183 ± 2.64 – 366 ± 4.58 μg kg−1). This was followed by biscuits (57 ± 2.64 – 1433 ± 2.51 μg kg−1), breakfast cereals (121 ± 8.73 – 245 ± 3.60 μg kg−1), bread (119 ± 1.73 – 263 ± 3.60 μg kg−1) and then coffee (113 ± 2.64 - 64 ± 3.05 μg kg−1). Regarding traditional foods, the highest level of AA was found in AL- Mshabak (481 ± 2.08 μg kg−1) and AL-Awamat (421 ± 2.64 μg kg−1) followed by AL-Namora (282 ± 4.35 μg kg−1) and AL-Kenafa (242 ± 2.64 μg kg−1). It was also observed that the lowest amount of AA was in fried bread (230 μg kg−1), AL-Fatayer (192 ± 3.51 μg kg−1) and AL-Baqlawa (172 ± 4.35 μg kg−1) while Eid Aqras (130 ± 4.58 μg kg−1) and AL-Brazeq (167 ± 3.78 μg kg−1) contained the least amount of AA.Conclusion: The results indicate that the highest levels of AA are found in the most commonly consumed foods. There was significant difference (p < 0.05) in AA levels among different food items and within different brands of the same product.Keywords: Acrylamide, Commercial foods, Traditional foods, Syrian food, Contaminants, UPLCMS/MS

Incorporating Prior Information into A GMM Objective For Mixed Logit Demand Systems

Random parameters demand system estimates can generate upward sloping demands and imply margins outside of the theoretical bounds for profit maximization. If such violations are numerous enough, they can confound merger simulation exercises. Using Lerner indices for multiproduct firms playing static Bertrand games, we find that up to 35 per cent of implied margins for beer are outside the bounds. We characterize downward sloping demand and the theoretical bounds for profit maximization as prior information and extend the GMM objective function, incorporating inequality moments for product‐level own‐elasticities and brand level or product level Lerner indices. Very few violations remain when an inequality constrained estimator is used.

Fluoride Content of Bottled Drinking Waters in Qatar.

Fluoridation of drinking water has been recognized as one of the most effective ways of achieving community-wide exposure to the caries prevention effects of fluoride (F). A vast majority of people in Qatar use bottled water for drinking. Use of bottled water without knowing the F level may expose children to dental caries risk if the F level is lower than optimal or to dental fluorosis if the F level is too high. The aim of this study was to determine the F concentration of bottled water available in Qatar. A total of 32 brands of bottled water were evaluated. The F concentrations displayed on the labels were recorded. The F ion-selective electrode method was used to measure the F concentration in water samples, and three measurements were taken for every sample to ensure reproducibility. The p value was set at 0.05. The F concentration ranged from 0.06 to 3.0ppm with a mean value of 0.8ppm (±0.88). The F levels were provided by the manufacturers on the labels of 60% of the samples, but this was significantly lower than the measured F levels (p<0.0001). Moreover, bottled water that was produced in Saudi Arabia had significantly higher levels of F when compared to those produced in other countries (p<0.05). There was a wide variation in the F levels in the different brands of bottled water. Furthermore, there was a significant disparity between the F levels which were measured and those that were provided on the labels.

Lapsed buyers' durable brand consideration in emerging markets

The acquisition of non-customers in durable categories is costly. A history of positive and negative brand behaviors that include past choice (the positive) ending in defection to another brand (the negative) make lapsed buyers of a brand an intriguing segment of non-customers. This research explores how this mixed brand history affects the re-recruitment of lapsed buyers. Drawing on data from over 3500 cell phone owners of 26 cell phone brands across six emerging markets (China, Brazil, Russia, India, South Korea and Indonesia), the results first reveal that the cohort of lapsed buyers hold more positive attitudes than never-buyers. Further, across 74 brand level regressions, even accounting for attitude affects, lapsed buyers are not less likely to consider the brand in the future than other non-customers, and in 51% of cases, lapsed buyers have significantly higher consideration levels. This result is consistent across the 26 brands, of large and small market share, and local or global brand origin, but stronger for lapsed buyers in more developed cell phone markets such as China, Brazil and South Korea, suggesting that the more experienced the buyer/market, the more past ownership works in favor of the lapsed brand. This research highlights the importance of considering the buyer's full past history with the brand, not just current status, in theoretical models and when modeling brand choice or customer lifetime value for durables in emerging markets. For practitioners, this research suggests value in marketing efforts to reactivate lapsed users in emerging markets, and that brand history creates another barrier for new entrants, with no lapsed buyers, looking to recruit customers.

Tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines NNN and NNK levels in cigarette brands between 2000 and 2014

The evolution of the levels of tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines (TSNA), N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) in mainstream (MS) cigarette smoke is investigated based on smoke and tobacco chemistry data of cigarette brands sold by Philip Morris International (PMI) between 2000 and 2014. A total of 315 cigarette samples representing a wide range of product and design characteristics manufactured by PMI between 2008 and 2014 were analyzed and compared to a previously published dataset of PMI brands manufactured in 2000. The data indicate that there is a substantial reduction of NNN and NNK levels in tobacco fillers and MS cigarette smoke per mg of tar and per mg of nicotine using Health Canada Intense (HCI) machine-smoking regime. This observed reduction in NNN and NNK levels in MS cigarette smoke is also supported by the downward trend observed on NNN and NNK levels in USA flue-cured Virginia and Burley tobacco lots from 2000 to 2014 crops, reflecting effectiveness of measures taken on curing and agricultural practices designed to minimize TSNA formation in tobacco.

Asymmetric demand patterns for products with added nutritional benefits and products without nutritional benefits

Purpose This paper aims to investigate consumers’ demand patterns for products with nutritional benefits and products with no nutritional benefits across processed healthy and unhealthy foods. This paper integrates price changes (i.e. increases and decreases) into a demand model and quantifies their relative impact on the quantity of food purchased. First, how demand patterns vary across processed healthy and unhealthy products is investigated; second, how demand patterns vary across nutrition-benefited (NB) products and non-nutrition-benefited (NNB) products is examined; and third, how consumers respond to price increases and decreases for NB across processed healthy and unhealthy foods is investigated. Design/methodology/approach Here, a demand model quantifying scenarios for price changes in consumer food choice behaviour is proposed, and controlled for heterogeneity at household, store and brand levels. Findings Consumers exhibit greater sensitivity to price decreases and less sensitivity to price increases across both processed healthy and unhealthy foods. Moreover, the research shows that consumers’ demand sensitivity is greater for NNB products than for NB products, supporting our prediction that NB products have higher brand equity than NNB products. Furthermore, the research shows that consumers are more responsive to price decreases than price increases for processed healthy NB foods, but more responsive to price increases than price decreases for unhealthy NB foods. The findings suggest that consumers exhibit a desirable demand pattern for products with nutritional benefits. Originality/value Although studies on the effects of nutritional benefits on demand have proliferated in recent years, researchers have only estimated their impact without considering the effect of price changes. This paper contributes by examining consumers’ price sensitivity for NB products across processed healthy and unhealthy foods based on consumer scanner data, considering both directionalities of price changes.

Heritage branding orientation: The case of Ach. Brito and the dynamics between corporate and product heritage brands

The notion of heritage branding orientation is introduced and explicated. Heritage branding orientation is designated as embracing both product and corporate brands and differs from corporate heritage brand orientation which has an explicit corporate focus. Empirical insights are drawn from an in-depth and longitudinal case study of Ach. Brito, a celebrated Portuguese manufacturer of soaps and toiletries. This study shows how, by the pursuance of a strategy derived from a heritage branding orientation, Ach. Brito – after a prolonged period of decline – achieved a dramatic strategic turnaround. The findings reveal how institutional heritage can be a strategic resource via its adoption and activation at both the product and corporate levels. Moreover, the study explains how the bi-lateral interplay between product and corporate brand levels can be mutually reinforcing. In instrumental terms, the study demonstrates how heritage can be activated and articulated in different ways. For instance, it can reposition both product and/or corporate brands; it can be meaningfully informed by product brand heritage and shape corporate heritage and can be of strategic importance to both medium-sized and small enterprises.

신진 디자이너 브랜드의 시장 지향성 고찰

This study explores the level of designer brands' market oriented attitude through a conceptual framework of market orientation. Designer brands have rapidly increased in the Korean fashion market with a competitive environment that pushes designers to improve market oriented attitudes and strategy. Designers working for 20 brands that the government designated as 'promising creative designer brands' were invited for in-depth interviews, 19 designers from 18 brands participated in this study. The generation of market intelligence that composes market orientation meant that the designers were confirmed to collecting different types of information according to information sources. They showed interest in collecting information on the exploration of design trends from overseas designers as well as operational and managerial information from domestic designers. Fashion-related stakeholders mainly collected feedback on design concepts from the press and public institutions. They collected customer feedback from buyers; however, appropriate feedback was inadequate. Designers generally appeared to place less value on the collection of customer responses and opinions; however, two groups of designers showed customer-oriented attitudes according to accumulated experience. The market-oriented attitude of top designers had an important role in designer brands; consequently, top designers should be properly trained to improve market-oriented attitudes to increase market performance.

Evaluation of trace metal and polychlorinated biphenyl levels in tea brands of different origin commercialized in Italy

The objectives of this study were to investigate the trace element (Hg, Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Fe, Cr and Se) and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) content of several commercially available brands of green and black tea marketed in Italy. The concentrations these chemicals were found to be variable and largely dependent upon the type and brand of analysed tea. The most abundant element among the essential elements was Fe, followed by Zn, Cu, Se, Ni and Cr, whereas Pb was the predominant among the tested nonessential elements followed by Hg and Cd. Assessment based on several available guidelines showed that element content were low, except for Hg and Ni. The PCBs concentrations were generally low, with a homologue profile dominated by low-chlorinated congeners, namely three- and tetra-PCBs accounting for more than 60% of the total residue. Apart from trace elements, this is the first study documenting in detail the concentrations and congener distribution of PCBs in tea samples of different origin.

Spillover Effects in Seeded Word-of-Mouth Marketing Campaigns

Seeded marketing campaigns (SMCs) involve firms sending products to selected customers and encouraging them to spread word of mouth (WOM). Prior research has examined certain aspects of this increasingly popular form of marketing communication, such as seeding strategies and their efficacy. Building on prior research, this study investigates the effects of SMCs that extend beyond the generation of WOM for a campaign’s focal product by considering how seeding can affect WOM spillover effects at the brand and category levels. The authors introduce a framework of SMC-related spillover effects, and empirically estimate these with a unique data set covering 390 SMCs for products from 192 different cosmetics brands. Multiple spillover effects are found, suggesting that while SMCs can be used primarily to stimulate WOM for a focal product, marketers must also account for brand- and category-level WOM spillover effects. Specifically, seeding increases conversations about that product among nonseed consumers, and, interestingly, decreases WOM about other products from the same brand and about competitors’ products in the same category as the focal product. These findings indicate that marketers can use SMCs to focus online WOM on a particular product by drawing consumers away from talking about other related, but off-topic, products. Data, as supplemental material, are available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2016.1001 .

The relationship between exposure to brand-specific alcohol advertising and brand-specific consumption among underage drinkers – United States, 2011–2012

ABSTRACTBackground: Marketing is increasingly recognized as a potentially important contributor to youth drinking, yet few studies have examined the relationship between advertising exposure and alcohol consumption among underage youth at the brand level. Objectives: To examine the relationship between brand-specific exposure to alcohol advertising among underage youth and the consumption prevalence of each brand in a national sample of underage drinkers. Methods: We analyzed the relationship between population-level exposure of underage youth ages 12–20 to brand-specific alcohol advertising in national magazines and television programs and the 30-day consumption prevalence – by brand – among a national sample of underage drinkers ages 13–20. Underage youth exposure to alcohol advertising by brand for each month in 2011, measured in gross rating points (GRPs, a standard measure of advertising exposure), was obtained from GfK MRI (a media consumer research company) and Nielsen for all measured national issues of magazines and all national television programs, respectively. The 30-day consumption prevalence for each brand was obtained from a national survey of 1031 underage drinkers conducted between December 2011 and May 2012. Results: Underage youth were more than five times more likely to consume brands that advertise on national television and 36% more likely to consume brands that advertise in national magazines. The consumption prevalence of a brand increased by 36% for each 1.5 standard deviation (50 GRPs) increase in television adstock among underage youth and by 23% for each 1.5 standard deviation (10 GRPs) increase in magazine adstock. Conclusion: These findings suggest that alcohol advertising influences an important aspect of drinking behavior – brand choice – among youth who consume alcohol.

The Severity of Negative Events in Enterprises Affects Consumers' Brand Attitude

With an increasing occurrence of negative events in enterprises, I explored how the severity level of negative events affects consumers' brand attitude through the mediating variable of consumers' perceived sense of betrayal and the moderating variable of brand attachment. I used an experimental method to collect data and performed independent samples t tests, two-way analyses of variance, and linear regressions to analyze surveys completed by 472 respondents. The results showed that the level of severity of a negative event had a significant influence on consumers' brand attitude through the mediating variable of their perceived sense of betrayal. The more serious the negative event, the greater was the perceived sense of betrayal of the consumers and the more negative was their brand attitude. I further found that the level of consumers' brand attachment had a moderating effect, in that, the greater the severity of a negative event, the stronger was the perception of betrayal by consumers with high brand attachment.

Spillover of social responsibility associations in a brand portfolio

Purpose– This paper aims to explore the spillover effect of social responsibility (SR) activity at the product brand level on the full brand portfolio. Extant research has established that SR activity can be beneficial to companies by influencing consumers’ SR associations with the company and its product brands. However, most studies only look at the outcomes of SR implemented at the corporate level (i.e. corporate social responsibility [CSR]). This paper provides a new and expanded perspective by exploring how SR at the product brand level reverberates throughout the full brand portfolio. Drawing on associative network theory, the authors propose a conceptual model that predicts when and how SR associations with a product brand spillover to corporate brand and other product brands and the consequences of this spillover.Design/methodology/approach– Two experiments were conducted to test the conceptual model. The authors used utilitarian products (frozen yogurt, ice cream, and soft drink) in the first experiment and value-expressive products (running shoes, T-shirt and watch) in the second experiment.Findings– Both experiments found support for the proposed spillover effect. The moderating impact of corporate branding strategy and product category fit on the strength of spillover effect were also examined.Practical implications– The findings will help managers make better decisions about which brands (product and corporate level) should be involved in SR activity.Originality/value– This research offers a new perspective to look at the consequences of SR activity and reveals a larger picture than extant research on CSR by indicating the impact of a product brand’s SR initiative on the whole brand portfolio.

Does Ethical Image Build Equity in Corporate Services Brands? The Influence of Customer Perceived Ethicality on Affect, Perceived Quality, and Equity

In the current socioeconomic environment, brands increasingly need to portray societal and ethical commitments at a corporate level, in order to remain competitive and improve their reputation. However, studies that relate business ethics to corporate brands are either purely conceptual or have been empirically conducted in relation to the field of products/goods. This is surprising because corporate brands are even more relevant in the services sector, due to the different nature of services, and the subsequent need to provide a consistent high-quality customer experience across all the brand–customer interactions and touch-points. Thus, the purpose of this article is to study, at a corporate brand level and in the field of services, the effect of customer perceived ethicality of a brand on brand equity. The model is tested by structural equations, using data collected for eight service categories by means of a panel composed of 2179 customers. The test of measurement equivalence between these categories is conducted using generalizability theory. Confirmatory factor analysis marker technique is applied in order to check for common method variance. The results of the hypothesized model indicate that customer perceived ethicality has a positive, indirect impact on brand equity, through the mediators of brand affect and perceived quality. However, there is no empirical evidence for a direct effect of customer perceived ethicality on brand equity.

Consumer perceived brand innovativeness

Purpose – This paper aims to examine brand innovativeness. While innovativeness has been studied at the product and firm levels, there is little research at the brand level. This paper argues for why this is needed, develops a conceptualization of consumer perceived brand innovativeness (CPBI) from a theoretical perspective and then develops and validates a measure for CPBI. Design/methodology/approach – Three qualitative studies were conducted to generate an enriched and more detailed understanding of what brand innovativeness means to consumers. Data were collected using free association and open-ended elicitation techniques. Next, a CPBI scale was developed and validated in three quantitative studies. Findings – The results indicate that innovative brands are related with several interesting core and secondary associations that have not been adequately addressed in previous research. CPBI is conceptualized as a unidimensional construct. Altogether six studies show that the proposed CPBI measure is valid and reliable. Originality/value – The present study is the first to identify the limitations of product and firm innovativeness conceptualizations with regards to brand innovativeness. It develops a unique and theoretically supported conceptualization and operationalization of CPBI. The first brand concept map for the concept of innovative brands is presented. The results of the studies indicate the measure’s ability to successfully predict important consumer behavior variables such as purchase intentions, and to demonstrate superior predictive performance compared with a key related scale in the mobile phone category.

The social media transformation process: curating content into strategy

Purpose – Social media is an engaging area of research that is rapidly evolving. The purpose of this paper is to focus on how corporations should effectively utilize this new media as a marketing channel. The key to any successful communication strategy is matching the message to the target audience and achieving customer engagement. Two important target audience variables were identified as crucial when determining an organization’s social media communications strategy: the level of brand relationship, and the level of category involvement. Design/methodology/approach – Depth interviews were initially employed, followed by questionnaires, and then computer assisted content analysis was performed on 723 online media articles relating to social media marketing to identify semantic and conceptual relationships. Findings – Research from both a customer and corporate perspective led to insights into how organizations can develop their social media strategies in order to transform their brand message from being perceived as a commercial source of information to a social source – the social media transformation process. Research limitations/implications – This research suggests a finer level of segmentation of social media users that will lead to content strategies adapted to fit the current levels of brand and category involvement. This could be used by organization to develop a model of best practice to achieve their social media objectives. Practical implications – It is crucial for organizations to understand how different groups of users influence, receive, curate, and interact via social media. The greater the depth of this knowledge, the greater the effectiveness of content marketing strategies developed by the corporation. Organizations that utilize social media marketing must carefully analyse the large amount of consumer information available to them, listen to consumer conversations, and determine the needs and segments that will be most receptive to different approaches. They must also accept that in a social media environment user generated content and interactive communication processes should be at the heart of successful strategy. Originality/value – To date, there has been limited analysis of how relationship and involvement factors drive social media content (Cho et al., 2014; Malthouse et al., 2013). More research is needed to understand how key user characteristics lead to content that fully utilizes the social interaction and message diffusion potential of this media. This paper introduces a hierarchy of content marketing based upon the type of relationship between the user and the organization, as well as their level of product category involvement.

Mass Customization and Guardrails: 'You Can't Be All Things to All People'

A mass customization (“customer as designer”) strategy enables a firm to yield a closer match between its products and customer tastes. A mismatch between those tastes and the delivered product implies a cost to the consumer. Rather than assume all products, other than the one purchased, are immaterial to the customer, we consider the brand-level issue of mismatch between customers’ tastes and the firm’s full range of products. To this end, we permit consumers’ utility to depend upon the distance between their ideal point and the limits of the firm’s product varieties, which we refer to as guardrail products. Mass customization can thus reduce product-specific “fit” costs yet exacerbate brand-level fit. In the absence of brand-level costs, the firm extracts maximal revenue from consumers by offering a range of varieties to cover all possible consumer tastes at a uniform price We show that considering a brand level cost implies that the firm should limit the breadth of the mass customization region to be less than full market coverage. More interestingly, we also find that the firm should optimally implement a differential pricing scheme for those product varieties at the outer extremes of its product line, catering to those consumers with more extreme tastes. Given that a continuum of prices will likely not be practical in application, we also consider the more pragmatic approach of a set of fixed (non-customized) products to serve customers at the taste extremes, with a corresponding set of (lower) fixed prices. We prove this heuristic solution performs close to optimal.

THE APPROPRIATENESS OF PROMOTING LUXURY BRANDS ONLINE. THE EFFECTS OF BRAND HIERARCHY AND LUXURY VALUE

As rapid adoption of Internet around globe made digital marketing an indispensable means of gaining competitive advantage for many sectors (Leeflang, Verhoef, Dahlstrom, & Freundt, 2014), its appropriateness for luxury products remains debatable. The main lures to luxury products for many consumers are their exclusivity and rarity, two valuable attributes that are at odds with digital medias’ ubiquitousness and pervasiveness (Hennigs, Wiedmann, & Klarmann, 2012). The main purpose of this paper is to examine effects of online promotion of luxury brands on different aspects of their brand image. Additionally, paper checks how impact of Internet on luxuries’ brand image varies across different segments of luxury consumers and levels of brand luxuriousness.The main hypothesis of study, that Internet affects luxury brand image, is grounded in McLuhan’s (1964) assertion that the medium is message. The congruence of medium to advertised brand has a positive effect on brand evaluations (Dahlen, 2005). Given that Internet could serve as a tool for luxury firms to enhance their creative aspects (Okonkwo, 2009), question arises as to how congruent Internet is as a medium to luxury brands that sell on basis of their exclusivity. The congruence of Internet to luxury brands is moderated by: level of luxuriousness of brand and perceived luxury values.Dahlen, Granlund & Grenros (2009) have shown that use of new media benefit more “low reputation” brands rather than “high reputation” ones. In high reputation brands consumers have expectations of higher standards from medium and are more attentive to changes in advertising medium. Moreover, by definition higher level of brand luxuriousness higher its exclusivity and rarity. Hence, it is hypothesized that Internet’s appropriateness as a medium will be negatively related to luxuriousness of brand.Luxury values influence consumer choices for luxury brands and brand image perceptions. Luxury value activation by contextual cues like advertising medium is expected to align image perceptions to expressed values. As a result, we expect brand image attributes that express specific luxury values to be influenced by extent to which medium promotes or inhibits expression of such values. In luxuries, Wiedmann, Hennings and Siebels (2007) identified four categories of luxury values (financial, functional, individual and social) that are hypothesized to have a differential impact on effect of Internet to luxury brand image.To test hypothesized relationships, an experimental design was used. Facebook was selected as a platform for “online” promotion and stimuli were luxury watches. The results indicated online luxury promotion adversely affects luxury brand’s perceptions hedonism and uniqueness. The effects were more pronounced to most luxurious brands and to specific luxury value segments. The results provide useful insights for development of luxury brand strategies.

Does the value manufacturers (brands) create translate into enhanced reputation? A multi-sector examination of the value–satisfaction–loyalty–reputation chain

Literature has widely acknowledged that the main purpose of company–customer relationships is to create value for both sides. Satisfaction, loyalty behaviours, and reputation are considered customer-related performance measures. However, research has not fully uncovered the complicated interrelationships among these constructs, particularly with regard to multiple mediations and in the case of manufacturer corporate brands. To examine the hypothesised relationships between and among our constructs, we go beyond the commonly studied single mediator and test a four-path model (three mediators in a series). The results indicate that satisfaction and loyalty behaviours mediate the relationship between customer value and reputation. In theoretical terms, we contribute to the literature by showing that customer value creation is a reputation-building strategy that bridges the gap among product, brand, and corporate performance levels.

Developments in Promotion Strategies: Review on Psychological Streams of Consumers

Theoretical decision-making models and theories in context to promotions at both brand and product level have focused and studied on several thought-provoking research explorations with three steams of research in promotion strategies. Researchers have studied the impact of price promotion strategies on consumers in several distant behaviors. Developmental theoretical models provide managers and researchers insights with deep understandings for many vital concerns like, why need in-depth study to the practice of promotion strategies, dilemmas like stock pressure, sales promoting decline after promotion events and its consequences. Branding and pricing have vital influence on decisions by consumers. Psychophysiological models are useful in the context, for instance, in decision and media research. Many theoretical researches in promotions have focused its aspects on pricing and its impact on consumer decision making. This is might because much of the literature has focused on building and evaluating price promotion strategies. This paper provides an indepth review on theoretical models, which are valuable for both researchers and for marketing executives.