Bottom-up Relationships Research Articles

From entrepreneurial leadership to new product development performance: A study of the Coleman bathtub model

PurposeThis study aims to examine the relationship between entrepreneurial leadership (EL) and new product development performance (NPDP) at the firm level (level 2) of analysis and employee’s creativity (EC) at the cross level (level 1) of analysis. It also examines the serial mediations of (1) intrinsic motivation (IM)-EC and (2) creative self-efficacy (CSE)-EC on the relationship between EL and NPDP.Design/methodology/approachA systematic random sampling technique was used to collect data through self-administered surveys from leaders and employees of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Pakistan’s IT sector. Analysis was conducted on net responses from 114 leaders and 476 employees.FindingsThe results revealed significant positive associations between EL and NPDP at the firm level of analysis and EC at the cross level of analysis. The results of the cross-level serial mediations show that (1) IM and EC, and (2) CSE and EC serially mediate the relationship between EL and NPDP.Originality/valueThis study is among the few to use the Coleman bathtub model to show top-down and bottom-up relationships. The study extends and complements the multilevel perspective on leadership and new product development research by simultaneously examining the relationships between EL and NPDP at the individual and firm levels.

Plant Functional Dispersion, Vulnerability and Originality Increase Arthropod Functions from a Protected Mountain Mediterranean Area in Spring.

Plant diversity often contributes to the shape of arthropod communities, which in turn supply important ecosystem services. However, the current biodiversity loss scenario, particularly worrying for arthropods, constitutes a threat for sustainability. From a trait-based ecology approach, our goal was to evaluate the bottom-up relationships to obtain a better understanding of the conservation of the arthropod function within the ecosystem. Specifically, we aim: (i) to describe the plant taxonomic and functional diversity in spring within relevant habitats of a natural protected area from the Mediterranean basin; and (ii) to evaluate the response of the arthropod functional community to plants. Plants and arthropods were sampled and identified, taxonomic and functional indices calculated, and the plant-arthropod relationships analyzed. Generally, oak forests and scrublands showed a higher plant functional diversity while the plant taxonomic richness was higher in grasslands and chestnut orchards. The abundance of arthropod functional groups increased with the plant taxonomic diversity, functional dispersion, vulnerability and originality, suggesting that single traits (e.g., flower shape or color) may be more relevant for the arthropod function. Results indicate the functional vulnerability of seminatural habitats, the relevance of grasslands and chestnut orchards for arthropod functions and pave the way for further studies about plant-arthropod interactions from a trait-based ecology approach.

Evaluating the Impact of Preconditions for Systemic Human and Non-human Communities

This paper discusses and examines the concept of preconditions and their possible impact on any systemic supporting structures related to human and non-human ecological communities. Preconditions are defined and discussed in this work as phenomena that exist, seen or unseen, as part of the initial stages of a developing community system (for both human and non-human). Recent evaluations of cases and models have highlighted how preconditions may enhance or weaken developing support structures of any ecological community system. These observations and outcomes were based on several previous cases, with targeted literature reviews and field work. The research spans across several different disciplines, with a common emergent thread, based on insights afforded by an interdisciplinary approach. The impact of preconditions within systems of sustainable ecological community structures, are essentially virtual with emergent physical properties and outcomes. The practical and ecological community implications of this work lie in the provision of better insights into the how, why, and what are the existing, dynamic conditions towards sustained, future community development. The impact on dynamic community evolution involves countless dynamic relationships. This work presents reviews, based on evaluations on a range of approaches to capture a sense of what occurs within these complex environments and the abilities we need to visualize and communicate these actions. These virtual, and ultimately physical, transitional states are very relevant when considering the impact of what are essentially, bottom-up relationships. This work highlights the importance and impact of preconditions within an ecological community, and the dynamics involved with achieving a sustained state or “equilibrium”, whilst attempting to absorb new conditions that the community may be encountering.

Formalization of East Jerusalem public transport: Mobility, politics and planning

The integration and reform of small-scale public transport operators, often known as informal transport or paratransit, is increasingly a priority in managing urban mobility. In Jerusalem, city and national transport authorities have been working with Palestinian bus operators in East Jerusalem for over 20 years in an incremental formalization process that has seen both successes and ongoing challenges. Drawing on in-depth interviews with operators, regulators and community stakeholders, this study finds that the unification of small operators with long historical territories plays an important role in reform and service improvement. Operators and regulators are able to collaborate in order to improve services for passengers in areas such as safety, vehicle quality and some infrastructures. However, reforming route networks and enforcing level of service of remains difficult. In the context of Israel's ethnocratic municipal regime, the politics of reform are bounded in the history of the conflict, but also tied to bottom-up relationships between operators and communities.

A study on promoting the intensive use of industrial land in China through governance: A game theoretical approach

Extensive use of industrial land has been typical for many cities in China since the end of the previous century. One of the most important reasons is the local governments’ strategy choice in land use. In this research, a governance structure from the view of the tax-sharing system and the performance appraisal system is constructed to explain the causes of extensive land use using game theory analysis. The key finding is that the governance structure in industrial land use is an organizational structure composed of the central government, local government and the market, and these three participants hold inter-conditioned relationships so as to form a closed loop. However, a bottom-up relationship chain from the market is absent in this structure, which makes it difficult to rely on local governments to implement intensive use of industrial land by themselves. Game equilibrium analysis shows that if a performance penalty coefficient is considered to refine the existing performance appraisal system to help produce a market feedback, the possibility of local governments adopting extensive land use strategies will be reduced.

Living Mirrors: Infinity, Unity, and Life in Leibniz’s Philosophy by Ohad Nachtomy

Reviewed by: Living Mirrors: Infinity, Unity, and Life in Leibniz’s Philosophy by Ohad Nachtomy Christian Leduc Ohad Nachtomy. Living Mirrors: Infinity, Unity, and Life in Leibniz’s Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019. Pp. xi + 219. Cloth, $85.00. The concept of life and the importance of the life sciences in Leibniz have recently become objects of much interest. The question concerning the status of life in Leibnizian metaphysics is one of the motivating factors. On many occasions, Leibniz affirms that matter is full of life and that compound substances are actually living beings with a soul and an organic body. Nachtomy’s book touches on these themes, but its originality lies in its contribution to understanding the relationship between life and the infinite. The first chapters analyze the different meanings that the concept of infinity assumes in Leibniz. This step is crucial, since living beings have a structure extending into infinity. Nachtomy identifies three types of infinity: the absolute and actual infinity that expresses the divine nature, the potential and divisible infinity characteristic of mathematical quantities, and finally, a third infinity that concerns creatures and constitutes a maximum of its kind. The last type refers to machines of nature that contain an infinite but limited structure. A main feature of Nachtomy’s approach is the use of several analogies to highlight the similarities between the concepts at play here. For instance, if one compares the impossibility of infinite number with the necessary existence of the divine infinite, one might draw an analogy between the units that make up a number and the attributes that comprise the idea of God. Elsewhere, a comparison is drawn between arithmetic unity on the one hand, and substantial unity per se on the other, his justification being that both are the basis of a complex structure. Nachtomy is aware of the differences between these concepts, but the usefulness of these analogies, especially those with mathematical quantities, remains questionable. In the texts where Leibniz treats infinite number and the divine infinite jointly, it is not obvious that he means to compare the two rather than to oppose them. In fact, these concepts belong to distinct domains: God and creatures are actual realities, while numbers are only ideal. For Leibniz, depending on whether it is the former or the latter, the relationship between unity and totality is also conceived of differently. The second part of the book links the infinity of substances with certain metaphysical aspects of life. At the heart of the Leibnizian doctrine lies the distinction between natural and artificial machines. Unlike Descartes, Leibniz wishes to differentiate nature from artifice qualitatively, rather than by degrees. Two characteristics seem particularly important in Nachtomy’s interpretation. On the one hand, the infinity of the machine of nature is not understood by the number of organs it comprises, but rather by its structure. In light of this, he draws a comparison between this structure and the law of series, which determines the individuality and activity of each substance. On the other hand, because God creates the machine of nature and determines its function, Nachtomy argues that we should understand it as an end, which also extends in its being infinitely. However, even if some of Leibniz’s texts could be interpreted in this way, it is not always clear that final causation is central to Leibniz’s concept of divine machines. One of the most innovative features of Nachtomy’s analysis is his insistence on the role played by monads in living beings. Most commentators emphasize their bottom-up relationship, according to which monads are the building blocks of corporeal beings. In so doing, they forget that the dominant monad or soul must, to the extent that it gives structure to the organic body, be understood in terms of a top-down relationship. The animated monad is thus the foundation of the machine of nature, providing it with infinite unity, activity, and organization. Nachtomy draws a general conclusion from these considerations: Leibniz’s concept of the divine machine is an element in his metaphysics, not a theoretical framework for the empirical life sciences. It is true that Leibniz often claims that metaphysical explanations must be...

Relationships of otter populations with fish, macroinvertebrates and water quality across three Korean rivers revealed by inferential modelling based on evolutionary computation

Depending on the life cycles of trophic biota, cascades of biological transition are established between top-down and bottom-up relationship. In South Korea, flows of the large rivers have been regulated with large weirs and estuary barrages construction. The Eurasian otter Lutra lutra is a semi-aquatic carnivore and top predator in freshwater systems. In order to understand the aquatic community variability under the impact of river modifications, we assessed the strengths of otter populations in relation to limnological data monitored between 2014 and 2016 at 250 sites of the Nakdong River, 92 sites of the Yeongsan River and 81 sites of the Seumjin River. The habitat preference and resource use of otter populations have been measured for each of the 423 river sites by the number of spraint (= otters' feces) per 600 m. The limnological data included water quality parameters, abundances of Mollusca, Anthropoda, Annelida, Nematomorpha, and Platyhelminthes as well as abundances of benthivore, herbivore, planktivore and piscivore fish. The hybrid evolutionary algorithm HEA has been applied to model relationships of otter with water quality, the benthic invertebrates and fish to determine habitat and food preferences of otter across the three rivers.Despite the stochastic noise of the data, the modelling results addressed well relationships between spraint densities and densities of fish and macroinvertebrate communities. Threshold conditions of the IF-THEN-ELSE-models discovered by HEA revealed otter responses to changing habitats and aquatic communities across the river sites but also between the three rivers. In addition, sensitivity analysis suggested possible relationships between the otter and aquatic communities. According to the results of sensitivity analysis, otter populations seemed not to control the piscivorous fish densities by showing a negative relationship, but preyed preferably on benthivorous and planktivorous fishes. Water quality parameters and benthic macro-invertebrates correlated well with otter populations suggesting favorable habitat and food-web structures. There is evidence that river flow regulation measures have a negative impact on otter populations, and that growing otter populations will alter future food web structures of the three rivers.

Integrating green strategy and green human resource practices to trigger individual and organizational green performance: the role of environmentally-specific servant leadership

Integrating strategic, top-down management and employee-oriented, bottom-up approaches, this inquiry proposes a research model in which green management initiatives (i.e., the fusion of green strategy and green human resource practices) influence organizational green performance and in turn organizational performance. This research model was comparatively tested in South Korean and Vietnamese tourism service contexts. The research results revealed that in both samples, environmentally-specific servant leadership mediated the top-down relationship between green management initiatives and employees’ organizational citizenship behavior for the environment (OCBE), and employee OCBE mediated the bottom-up relationship between environmentally-specific servant leadership and organizational green performance. Nonetheless, while the mediating role of organizational green performance for the link between employee OCBE and organizational performance was corroborated in the Korean sample, this mediation mechanism was not found in the Vietnamese sample. Implications for green management literature and practice are presented.

Time distortion under threat: Sympathetic arousal predicts time distortion only in the context of negative, highly arousing stimuli.

Theoretical models of time perception suggest a simple bottom-up relationship between physiological arousal and perceived duration. Increases in physiological arousal lengthen the perceived duration of events whereas decreases in physiological arousal reduce them. Whilst this relationship has been demonstrated for highly arousing negatively valenced stimuli, it has not been demonstrated for other classes of distorting stimuli (e.g. positively valenced or low arousal stimuli). The current study tested the effect of valence (positive and negative) and arousal level (high and low) on the relationship between physiological arousal and perceived duration. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) activity was measured during a verbal estimation task in which participants judged the duration of high and low arousal, positive, negative and neutrally valenced IAPS images. SNS and PSNS activity were indexed by measuring Pre-Ejection Period (PEP) and High Frequency Heart-rate Variability (HF-HRV) respectively. SNS reactivity was predicative of perceived duration, but only for high arousal negatively valenced stimuli, with decreases in PEP being associated with longer duration estimates. SNS and PSNS activity was not predictive of perceived duration for the low arousal negative stimuli or the low and high arousal positive stimuli. We therefore propose a new model suggesting that emotional distortions to time result from a combination of bottom-up (physiological arousal) and top-down (threat detection) factors.

A Multilevel Integrated Framework of Firm HR Practices, Individual Ambidexterity, and Organizational Ambidexterity

Research on strategic human resource (HR) management and organizational ambidexterity has assumed that organizational ambidexterity originates from operational managers that pursue both exploratory and exploitative activities. Yet, multilevel insights are absent about how and through which mechanisms HR practices may actually facilitate operational manager ambidexterity and how their ambidexterity may result into organizational ambidexterity. Our multisource and multilevel data from 467 operational managers and 104 senior managers within 52 firms reveals that the top-down effects of ability- and motivation-enhancing HR practices on operational manager ambidexterity are partially mediated by their role breadth self-efficacy and intrinsic motivational orientation. Furthermore, we find that the bottom-up relationship between operational manager and organizational ambidexterity is contingent on firm opportunity-enhancing HR practices. With that, our study provides important new multilevel insights into the effectiveness of strategic HR systems in supporting individual and organizational ambidexterity.

Shifts in the importance of the species pool and environmental controls of epiphytic bryophyte richness across multiple scales.

Species richness is influenced by a nested set of environmental factors, but how do these factors interact across several scales? Our main aim is to disentangle the relative importance of environmental filters and the species pool on the richness of epiphytic bryophytes across spatial scales. To do so, we sampled epiphytic bryophytes in 43 oak forests across the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. As predictorswe used climate, descriptors of forest structure and micro-environment. We applied structural equation modeling to relate these variables with richness and cover at three scales: locality (forest), stand (three stands per forest), and sample (a quadrate in a tree). We assumed top-down relationships, so that large-scale variables influenced lower scale variables, and in which cover directly influenced richness. Richness at the next larger scale (locality to stand and stand to sample) is considered a surrogate of the species pool and included as a predictor of richness at the next smaller scale. Environmental variables explain locality richness, but as we decrease the spatial scale, its importance decreases and the dependence on species pool increases. In addition, we found unexpected bottom-up relationships (between micro-scale environment to locality richness). Our results point to the scale dependence of niche vs. neutral processes: niche processes are important at the locality (forest) scale, while neutral processes are significant at the small (sample) scale. We propose a modified conceptualization of the factors influencing biodiversity at different spatial scales by adding links across different scales (between micro-environment and locality-scale richness in our study).

A Critical Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Healthcare System in Uganda, 1987 to 2015

Over the years, Uganda’s health policy frameworks and strategic plans have guided steady progress in various health indicators including increased access and utilisation of healthcare. However, health inequality in access and utilisation persist as a majority of citizens do not have access to quality health services due to poor services at most public health facilities resulting from inadequate health staff, drugs and equipment. This study reveals that socio-cultural, income and gender dynamics at household levels are critical determinants of healthcare access. Health system efficiency is fundamental factor; in Uganda, this remains challenging. The decentralisation policy introduced to improve public service has not resolved the historical institutional failures as expected due to weak local governments with limited fiscal and administrative authority to improve utilisation and quality of care for the citizens. Hitherto, primary healthcare remains the main component that benefits majority of citizens but it does not receive adequate funds as significant health budget remains at national level. The behavioural and organisational efficiency models offer government some leeway to customise its health priorities; especially the balance between expansion, improving quality of care and strengthening of local capacity at district level to achieve results but success depends on flexibility in planning and budgeting. This study argues that strong local health structures at facilities and community levels, and increased resource allocation to districts would make the health system work because the existing focus on district health teams alone has excluded individuals from taking part in health activities that is critical. This would bolster bottom-up relationships vital for health institutional functioning, accountability and decision-making that would improve quality health services leading to equitable access and utilisation.

Team OCB, leader charisma, and organizational change: A multilevel study

This study examines individual-level origins of team organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). Building on the literature on trust and social exchange theory, we hypothesize that individual-level leader charisma is indirectly related to team OCB through individual-level trust in leader. Additionally, we propose that the positive relationship between leader charisma and trust in leader is stronger under conditions of high organizational change. Based on data from 142 team members and 33 leaders, results reveal an indirect bottom-up relationship between individual-level leader charisma and team OCB through trust in leader. High change impact at the team- but not at the individual-level facilitates the positive relationship of leader charisma with trust in leader. The findings show how individual-level phenomenon can contribute to the emergence of team-level OCB.

Charisma and organizational change: A multilevel study of perceived charisma, commitment to change, and team performance

What makes people perceive a leader as charismatic, and how do team leaders obtain performance outcomes from their followers? We examine leaders in times of organizational change and investigate the mechanisms through which leaders' change-promoting behaviors are associated with team performance. In a multilevel mediation model, we propose that the indirect relationship between change-promoting behaviors and team performance is sequentially transmitted through followers' perceptions of charisma and followers' commitment to change. A study of 33 leaders and 142 followers provides empirical support for the model, using multilevel structural equation modeling to analyze top-down relationships between leaders and followers and bottom-up relationships between followers and team outcomes. Results suggest that team leaders are perceived as more charismatic when they engage in change-promoting behaviors. These behaviors facilitate team performance through individual followers' perceived charisma and commitment to change.

Does trigeminal nociception influence the visual cortex: a study of the effects of supraorbital electro- or chemo-nociceptive stimulation

Event Abstract Back to Event Does trigeminal nociception influence the visual cortex: a study of the effects of supraorbital electro- or chemo-nociceptive stimulation Simona Liliana Sava1*, Victor De Pasqua1, Delphine Magis1 and Jean Schoenen1 1 Headache Research Unit, Liège, University Department of Neurology, Belgium Background and aims : In migraine pathophysiology, the link between the visual cortex and the trigeminovascular system might play a pivotal role. In a previous study we showed the top-down relation between the visual cortex and the trigeminal nociceptive system. To search for the existence of a bottom-up relationship we studied the effect of electrical stimulation or application of capsaicin in the territory of the 1st division of the trigeminal nerve on pattern-reversal visual evoked potentials (PR-VEP). Methods: We recorded 600 responses of PR-VEP at 3.1 Hz before and after the trigeminal stimulation. The electrical stimuli were delivered over the supraorbital nerve for 20 min at 16 mA and 100 Hz in 7 healthy volunteers (HV). Capsaicin (cream 3%) was applied over the right frontal area for 1h in 8 HV. We measured PR-VEP N1, P1 and N2 latencies, N1-P1 and P1-N2 amplitudes in six sequential blocks of 100 sweeps and habituation as the change in amplitude over the six blocks. Results: The electrical stimulation increased the latency of P1 (p=0.027) and N2 (p=0.042) but left habituation unchanged. The capsaicin application increased habituation between the 1st and 2nd block of 100 responses (p=0.049) but had no significant effect on latencies. Conclusions: These results suggests that a bottom-up relation exists between the trigeminal (V1) afferent nociceptive pathway and the visual cortex. Interestingly, an increase in PR-VEP habituation, such as found after capsaicin, also occurs during the migraine attack, where it replaces the interictal deficit of habituation. References Sava SL, Schoenen J (2011) Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation modulates the nociceptive-specific blink reflex in healthy subjects but not in migraineurs. Cephalalgia, IHS-Berlin Sava SL, Schoenen J (2010) Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the visual cortex modulates trigeminal nociceptive pathways. EHMTIC-Nice Drummond PD (1986) A quantitative assessment of photophobia in migraine and tension headache. Headache 26:465–469. Lambert GA, Hoskin K, Zagami AS (2008) Cortico-NRM influences on trigeminal neuronal sensation. Cephalalgia 640–652. Boulloche N, Denuelle M (2010). Photophobia in migraine: an interictal PET study of cortical hyperexcitability and its modulation by pain. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 81(9):978-84. Reyes-Escogido Mde L, Gonzalez-Mondragon EG (2011) Chemical and pharmacological aspects of capsaicin. Molecules. 28;16(2):1253-70. de Tommaso M, Losito L, (2005) Capsaicin failed in suppressing cortical processing of CO2 laser pain in migraine patients. Neurosci Lett.12-19;384(1-2):150-5. de Tommaso M, Sardaro M (2007) Effects of the remote C fibres stimulation induced by capsaicin on the blink reflex in chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 27(8):881-90. Keywords: Migraine, Headache Disorders, Trigeminal Nerve, Capsaicin, Electric Stimulation, Pain Conference: Belgian Brain Council, Liège, Belgium, 27 Oct - 27 Oct, 2012. Presentation Type: Poster Presentation Topic: Other basic/clinical neurosciences topic Citation: Sava S, De Pasqua V, Magis D and Schoenen J (2012). Does trigeminal nociception influence the visual cortex: a study of the effects of supraorbital electro- or chemo-nociceptive stimulation. Conference Abstract: Belgian Brain Council. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnhum.2012.210.00105 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 19 Aug 2012; Published Online: 12 Sep 2012. * Correspondence: Mrs. Simona Liliana Sava, Headache Research Unit, Liège, University Department of Neurology, Liège, 4000, Belgium, simonaliliana.sava@gmail.com Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Simona Liliana Sava Victor De Pasqua Delphine Magis Jean Schoenen Google Simona Liliana Sava Victor De Pasqua Delphine Magis Jean Schoenen Google Scholar Simona Liliana Sava Victor De Pasqua Delphine Magis Jean Schoenen PubMed Simona Liliana Sava Victor De Pasqua Delphine Magis Jean Schoenen Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Density-Dependent Growth in Juvenile Sockeye Salmon (OncorhynchusNerka)

Data gathered over 77 lake-years from 4 coastal British Columbia sockeye salmon nursery lakes suggest that density-dependent growth reductions are only possible at exceptionally high fry densities. In Great Central Lake (n=33 years) and Sproat Lakes (n=30 years) there was no relationship between smolt weight and mean summer fry densities ranging from 760-3800 fry ha -1 . However, in two years when Sproat Lake fry densities were unusually high (1983=5183 ha -1 , 1996=4801 ha -1 ) smolt weights were among the lowest recorded. In Woss and Vernon lakes (n=14 lake-years), there were significant bottom-up relationships between fall-fry weights and zooplankton biomass, but no relationships between December-fry weights and average fry densities (range 331-1361 ha -1 ), nor were there significant top-down relationships between fry densities and average zooplankton biomass. Comparisons of zooplankton production with bioenergetic-based fry consumption, suggested that the carrying capacity for Vernon Lake which had the highest rate of zooplankton production, was 12,700 fry ha -1 , and for Sproat Lake which had the lowest zooplankton production, was 5200 fry ha -1 . We conclude that fry densities in the range commonly observed for British Columbia coastal lakes (i.e. 500-4000 ha -1 ) cannot cause density-dependent reductions in prey biomass or fry growth rates. Further research is necessary.

Structure and Measurement of Life Satisfaction in Asian Countries: An Exploratory Analysis

The relationship between specific and global measures of life satisfaction or happiness is usually seen as an asymmetric bottom-up relationship. Domain satisfaction and general satisfaction are independently measured and the typical question is whether the former has an impact on the latter or to what extent the former contributes to the latter. This paper, in contrast, investigates whether general life satisfaction can be statisti-cally derived from domain-specific satisfaction. It is suggested to conceptualize life satisfaction as a second-order factor, which is only indirectly related to observable variables. In the first part of the empirical analysis, it is shown that such a model fits the data of the first AsiaBarometer quite well. The factor models for the Asian countries under investigation are not equivalent but strikingly similar. The four first-order factors refer to satisfaction with (1) the family, (2) social status and social health, (3) economic status, and (4) collective goods. These factors load highly on a second-order factor, which is called general life satisfaction.The results suggest the calculation of a specifically weighted factor score for each country and to base the further analyses on these scores. In the second part of the empirical investigation, it is demonstrated, however, that simple unweighted indices, which are calculated under the assumption of meaning equivalence, are very highly correlated with the country-specific factor scores. The further analysis is therefore based on an unweighted index.In the last part of the empirical study, the reliability and validity of the life satisfaction index is examined and compared with the validity of a single indicator of overall happiness. Similar variables are used in many international surveys. Index and indicator are moderately correlated. It is shown that the life satisfaction index on average correlates higher with well-established determinants of happiness than the single item. This is particularly true for the pooled international data set, which includes the data from all participating countries. Accordingly, indices seem to be more reliable and valid measures of general life satisfaction, and may be better suited for comparative analyses at least for the countries under investigation.

A middle-out concept of hierarchy (or the problem of feeding the animals)

Developers use class hierarchies to model "real world" objects and as metaphors to organize their programs. We (the authors) believe that developers intuitively understand the variety of everyday objects: this cup, that water, those pencils, or in computer terms, this number, that window, those records. We also believe that developers approve of only one concept of class hierarchy, one out of many possible concepts.Many hidden assumptions lurk behind object-oriented inheritance. Traditional object-oriented concepts of hierarchy are obsessively top-down and ignore many obvious bottom-up relationships. Authors who write about object-oriented programming usually define class hierarchies in traditional or archaic terms, referring to the theory of Realism and ancient Greek philosophy. But, just because somebody sees a similarity between concepts in Smalltalk or C++ and concepts described by Plato and other philosophers, does not mean that the perception is appropriate. While the correspondences between classes and concepts from philosophy are interesting, they are not the only possible or useful correspondences. In Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things on page 6, Lakoff writes, "In fact, until very recently, the classical theory of categories was not even thought of as a theory. It was taught in most disciplines not as an empirical hypothesis but as an unquestionable, definitional truth."We want to change that assumption and expand the possibilities of what class hierarchies can be. Specifically, we introduce a cognitive science perspective of objects and the basic level of a class hierarchy. We believe that developers use software classes in a middle-out manner, just like people use linguistic categories. We believe that this middle-out interpretation explains some of the limits to modeling with traditional object-oriented inheritance. We use the basic level to distinguish between the type relationships within a class hierarchy: above the basic level, developers use runtime type relationships, and below the basic, level developers use compile-time type relationships. We also show that developers do program above the basic level.This paper is organized as follows. In the first section, we discuss class and hierarchy from a cognitive science point of view. In the second section, we define the basic level and describe a middle-out concept of hierarchy. In the third section, we explain the developer's version of basic level through the example of "feeding the animals" and show how it relates to type checking. We also describe some of the techniques that developers use to program above the basic level. And, in the fourth section, we argue that many traditional concepts of inheritance fail above the basic level. We argue that the subset and prototype concepts of hierarchy do not work in general, and we argue that Liskov's Substitution Principle and Meyer's Open-Closed Principle only work below the basic level.

International collaboration in the search for sustainable tourism in Bali, Indonesia

Abstract The Bali Sustainable Development Project (BSDP) is described and the procedures, definitions and criteria employed in the formulation of a sustainable development strategy for Bali are presented. Tourism is a major agent of change in Bali so that it has considerable implications for sustainable development there. The BSDP experience indicates the great importance of cultural sensitivity and linkages with and utilisation of existing institutional frameworks when working in an international collaborative context. Pervasive concerns, regardless of culture, are intersectoral linkages and topdown, bottom-up relationships.

International Collaboration in the Search for Sustainable Tourism in Bali, Indonesia

Abstract The Bali Sustainable Development Project (BSDP) is described and the procedures, definitions and criteria employed in the formulation of a sustainable development strategy for Bali are presented. Tourism is a major agent of change in Bali so that it has considerable implications for sustainable development there. The BSDP experience indicates the great importance of cultural sensitivity and linkages with and utilisation of existing institutional frameworks when working in an international collaborative context. Pervasive concerns, regardless of culture, are intersectoral linkages and topdown, bottom-up relationships.