Bornean Elephant Research Articles

Understanding the spatial distribution and hot spots of collared Bornean elephants in a multi-use landscape

In the Kinabatangan floodplain, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, oil palm and settlements have reduced and fragmented lowland tropical forests, home to around 200 endangered Bornean elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis). In this region, elephants range within forests, oil palm and community areas. The degree to which elephants are using these areas remains unclear. We used GPS telemetry data from 2010 to 2020 for 14 collared elephants to map their entire known ranges and highly used areas (hot spots) across four land use categories and estimate time spent within these. The use of land use types across elephants varied significantly. Typically, females had strong fidelity to forests, yet many of these forests are threatened with conversion. For the three males, and several females, they heavily used oil palm estates, and this may be due to decreased landscape permeability or foraging opportunities. At the pooled level, the entire range and hot spot extents, constituted 37% and 34% for protected areas, respectively, 8% and 11% for unprotected forests, 53% and 51% for oil palm estates, and 2% for community areas. Protecting all forested habitats and effectively managing areas outside of protected areas is necessary for the long-term survival of this population.

Examining the Relationship between Visitors Wildlife Value Orientation and Risk Perceptions: A study of the Borneo Pygmy Elephant in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo

Recently, there has been a growing interest in studying human-elephant conflicts; however, in the case of the Borneo Pygmy elephant, which has only been found in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo has not been thoroughly investigated. Recent studies shows the number of elephants killed as a result of human conflict is on the rise. This study intends to examine the relationship between visitor Wildlife Value orientation (domination and mutualism) towards Borneo Pygmy elephant risk perceptions. 401 survey data was collected from on-site visitors, and PLS-SEM analyses revealed that domination has a significant relationship with risk perception of Borneo Pygmy elephants. Mutualism, on the other hand, does not appear to be related to risk perceptions, according to the study. The findings are beneficial to policymakers in developing programmes that encourage visitors to view the endangered Borneo pygmy elephants in a more positive light, to reducing human-elephant conflicts.

Bornean Pygmy Elephant habitat usage of natural salt licks in Segaliud Lokan Forest Reserve

Bornean pygmy elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) is crucial in the forests ecosystem as it plays a vital role as a forest engineer. As such, it is crucial to conduct more research to contribute to the conservation of this species. This study examined the pygmy elephant usage of natural salt lick in Segaliud Lokan Forest Reserve (SLFR), also known as FMU19B. Salt lick is vital to maintain wildlife health. This study investigated the elephant’s visitation frequency and examined its activity pattern in the natural salt lick area. A camera trap survey was conducted from November 2019 till August 2020. Four natural salt licks (C50SL, C56SL, C59SL and C60SL), and three non-salt licks (C50NSL, C56NSL, and C59&C60NSL) was selected. The data were analysed using descriptive and statistical analysis. The results show a higher visitation frequency at the salt lick area than the non-salt lick area (p<0.01). The salt lick at C59 was the most frequently visited by the elephant. The activity pattern displayed by the Bornean pygmy elephant shows a higher degree of nocturnal activity (73.3%). This information is essential for the timber concession forest managers to design the conservation work for the species in balancing with the timber extraction activity.

The first reported cases of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus infectious haemorrhagic disease in Malaysia: case report

BackgroundElephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus haemorrhagic disease (EEHV HD) is the leading cause of death in captive Asian elephant calves in Asia, North America, and Europe with a mortality rate of ~ 65% in calves that are under human care. Although EEHV HD was first found in elephant camps, more recently it was identified in wild populations which poses a greater threat to the elephant population. Deaths due to EEHV HD have been seen in wild elephants, but the in-situ prevalence and mortality rate is unknown. We report the first EEHV HD cases in Malaysia from 3 wild born endangered Bornean elephant calves from Sabah with known typical clinical signs.Case presentationThe first calf died within 24 h of the onset of clinical signs; the second calf died within 12 h of the onset of clinical signs. The third calf succumbed within 72 h. Necropsies revealed that all 3 calves had similar presentations of EEHV HD but in the third calf with less severity. We conducted conventional polymerase chain reaction (cPCR) assays and found EEHV DNA at all 7 loci in the 3 calves; it was identified as EEHV1A, the virus type that has been found in most other reported cases.ConclusionTypical EEHV HD clinical signs and the molecular confirmation of EEHV by cPCR and sequencing point to EEHV as the cause of death. Further genetic investigation of the strain is in progress.

INTENSIVE TREATMENT OF A CAPTIVE BORNEAN ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS BORNEENSIS) INFECTED WITH MYCOBACTERIUM CAPRAE IN JAPAN.

In 2015, an estimated 17-year-old female Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) at Fukuyama Zoo in Japan exhibited anorexia and significant weight loss. Pan-susceptible Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) was isolated from vaginal discharge, oral mucus, urine, and fecal samples by culture. The isolate was identified as Mycobacterium caprae by genetic analysis. Isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and levofloxacin were administered rectally. Body weight increased to normal, but subsequently decreased again. Elevation of liver enzymes occurred, likely related to the increase in isoniazid dosage. After recovery from side effects, the elephant's weight increased further. However, isoniazid-resistant M. caprae was isolated from oral mucus after anti-tuberculosis drug treatment for 9 mo. The regimen was changed to rifampicin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, and levofloxacin, administered orally or rectally. The 18-mo treatment was completed in October 2018. This elephant has shown no clinical sign since. No MTBC-positive sample had been obtained as of March 2020.

Population, distribution, and habitat of Bornean Elephant in Tulin Onsoi, Nunukan District, Indonesia based on dung counts

Abstract. Sukmantoro W, Suyitno A, Mulyadi, Gunaryadi D, Seno A, Kusuma AI, Darwis. 2021. Population, distribution, and habitat of Bornean Elephant in Tulin Onsoi, Nunukan District, Indonesia based on dung counts. Biodiversitas 22: 311-319. The survey on population, distribution, and habitat of Bornean elephants is very important because it reduces the information gap about Bornean elephants’ population and distribution. In more detail, the study can be used for updating information and the needs of local government in a spatial plan based on biodiversity conservation. The survey of Bornean Elephant was conducted in Tulin Onsoi Subdistrict, Nunukan District, North Kalimantan Province, Indonesia, starting in February 2018 to May 2019. The survey area’s scopes are Agison, Sibuda, Apaan, and Tampilon sub-water catchment areas in 34 (5 x 5 km2) grids with a total of 850 km2. The occupancy method with perpendicular line transect was used in this study. In the survey, the number of traces was 52 finding points with a total of 241 traces. The elephant dung identified in the dung piles (one-time defecation) was in 29 finding points with a total of 38 dung piles (0.22 dung piles per km). Based on Distance 6.0 and involved the formula of the elephant population’s density with standard defecation and dung decay ratio, the elephant population density in the Tulin Onsoi is between 4.8-5.7 individuals/100 km2. Minimum convex polygon (MCP)-qHull showed that the area of ​​the elephant habitat is 253.12 km2 in Tulin Onsoi sub-district. Generally, the habitat conditions for the location are old secondary forests (37 %). Meanwhile, other habitats included in the survey area are primary forest, shrubs, and plantations, including community agriculture and roads. In the strategy of managing the Bornean elephant, efforts to stabilize or increase population are important things to do. Conservation-based spatial planning and close monitoring for the protection of small populations of this species and its threats, are options that can be selected for present and future in North Kalimantan.

Natural and anthropogenic drivers of Bornean elephant movement strategies

Endangered Bornean elephants are severely threatened by ongoing habitat transformation and increasing levels of human-elephant conflict. Understanding how elephants move across intact and transformed landscapes, as well as within them, is therefore of vital importance for the successful implementation of conservation management initiatives. We combined remote sensing and GPS telemetry data to identify broad habitat utilization and key movement areas to aid elephant management and conflict mitigation in three spatially-isolated populations in central and eastern Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Home ranges were estimated using Brownian Bridge Movement Models and specific behavioral movement traits were identified by pathway analyses. These behavioral traits enabled a fine-scale evaluation of movements between and adjacent to forest patches and the role of large-scale agriculture in shaping elephant movements. Both natural (topological) and anthropogenic (agricultural) landscape features were found to have a broad influence on elephant movements. All elephant populations exhibited human-mediated behavioral responses, regardless of disturbance level. Throughout their range, elephants appeared to actively select relatively degraded forests, as measured by aboveground carbon density. However, elephants actively avoided urbanized areas, including roads and villages. Throughout the elephant range, high-speed, low-trajectory movements were found at low aboveground carbon locations, with 27% of all such movements located in large-scale agriculture. Our results suggest that agriculture impacts movement strategies of elephants, with evidence of repeat agricultural use pointing towards an active rationale for this behavior. Elephants were also found to use ridgelines as movement pathways, providing further context for the protection of such forested areas. The Lower Kinabatangan population, located in small remnant forests, travelled further to meet their ecological needs, suggesting the population is under added strain. Our work represents the broadest landscape assessment of Bornean elephant movements to-date and has important implications for both future work and habitat-level protected area management strategies.

Shift of paradigm needed towards improving human–elephant coexistence in monoculture landscapes in Sabah

This article outlines the contemporary situation of the Bornean elephantElephas maximus borneensisin Sabah (Malaysian Borneo), and focuses on the existing challenges that need to be addressed to enable people and elephants to coexist, particularly in man‐made landscapes dominated by oil‐palm plantations. Bornean elephants are confined mostly to Sabah, to the north‐east 5% of the Borneo Island. Sabah started to expand its commercial plantation sector in the early 1980s and is the largest producer of palm oil in Malaysia, contributingc. 10% of global output for this commodity. The rapid pace of plantation expansion has resulted in the loss of the majority of lowland areas that are also needed by large mammal species to sustain breeding populations. Elephants are extreme lowland/floodplain specialists, and they still attempt to use their former and preferred habitat, which is now mostly dominated by oil‐palm plantations. At the time of writing, the land‐use planning system favoured by the government insufficiently incorporates the ecological and management needs for elephants across the entire landscape. This article also highlights the need for better collaboration and coordination between stakeholders to address the increasing rate of human–elephant conflicts in Sabah.

Protected area management priorities crucial for the future of Bornean elephants

Tropical protected area management strategies have traditionally been heavily skewed towards high carbon, primary forests. This focus can result in areas, such as heavily logged forests, being viewed as low quality and thus offered up for conversion. We assessed the importance of intact to heavily logged forests for the Bornean elephant in the Malaysian state of Sabah. By modelling distributions of elephants throughout Sabah based on GPS telemetry tracking of 29 individuals and airborne three-dimensional forest mapping, we present the most wide-scale analysis of forest use by Bornean elephants to date. Forests of 13 m in stature were found to be of highest suitability for elephants, especially when these areas were flat and low lying. Forest statures of this order are consistent with degraded landscapes, often viewed as suitable for oil palm conversion. Less than a quarter of fully-protected intact forests in Sabah were of suitable stature for elephants, whereas disturbed commercial forest reserves were found to be highly suitable. We suggest that the importance of degraded landscapes for the future of elephants is currently underestimated, and thus, the need for the preservation of such habitats is not seen as a priority. The loss of these landscapes to large-scale agriculture could prove detrimental to the longevity of the species in Borneo.

Genetic analyses favour an ancient and natural origin of elephants on Borneo

The origin of the elephant on the island of Borneo remains elusive. Research has suggested two alternative hypotheses: the Bornean elephant stems either from a recent introduction in the 17th century or from an ancient colonization several hundreds of thousands years ago. Lack of elephant fossils has been interpreted as evidence for a very recent introduction, whereas mtDNA divergence from other Asian elephants has been argued to favor an ancient colonization. We investigated the demographic history of Bornean elephants using full-likelihood and approximate Bayesian computation analyses. Our results are at odds with both the recent and ancient colonization hypotheses, and favour a third intermediate scenario. We find that genetic data favour a scenario in which Bornean elephants experienced a bottleneck during the last glacial period, possibly as a consequence of the colonization of Borneo, and from which it has slowly recovered since. Altogether the data support a natural colonization of Bornean elephants at a time when large terrestrial mammals could colonise from the Sunda shelf when sea levels were much lower. Our results are important not only in understanding the unique history of the colonization of Borneo by elephants, but also for their long-term conservation.

Dancing with the pygmy elephant: The Canadian space program, future directions amid challenges

Since the inception of the space age, Canada has pursued a partnership with the U.S. through NASA including participation from the Apollo era forward to the International Space Station. Canada joined the European Space Agency as a participating state since 1979. While these cooperative activities continued over the years, Canada also carved out areas of technology that both created economic returns but were valuable in terms of the joint projects. In a change that impacts Canada, NASA began restructuring its mission profile while it grappled with the shuttle program's termination and a downturn in the national economy. For Canada, finding a way forward for its space program is essential given the economic benefits and the international cache that accrues to a middle sized state that operates an independent space program. Finding its way forward is not easy given the costs associated with such endeavors. This paper examines Canada's current program development and its direction given the U.S. decline relative to other space powers. It also places Canada's program in the context of the debate over space technology utilization for economic development and competitiveness.

Underproductive agriculture aids connectivity in tropical forests

Establishing connectivity in tropical lowland forests is a major conservation challenge, particularly in areas dominated by agriculture. Replanting schemes have been widely utilized as a method for reconnecting once contiguous forest patches. However, these approaches require funds for both initial planting and subsequent site maintenance. Furthermore, identifying sites for habitat rehabilitation schemes is difficult and may require purchasing of land, sometimes at great expense. Underproductive, often unprofitable, areas of agriculture have the potential to aid in re-establishing forest connectivity via natural forest regeneration. We identified an area of natural forest regrowth, previously cleared for agriculture and abandoned due to high levels of flooding. We assessed the structural regrowth of this forest after a 17-year period, and examined its efficacy as corridor habitat for Bornean elephants. Regrowth areas had re-established tree canopy areas similar to that of adjacent forest, as well as a randomly selected site of uncleared forest. Flooding in the area hampered the regrowth of some sections of the site; however, ∼79% of the site exhibited canopy coverage. Aboveground carbon levels have returned to 50% those of uncleared forests, with flooding resulting in areas of reduced vegetation regeneration. Elephants have shown increasing usage of the regenerated forest, suggesting that the area has regenerated its suitability as elephant corridor habitat. We have shown that what would traditionally be thought of as low-quality, flood-prone areas for habitat restoration can be a useful, cost-effective tool for wildlife corridor management. We propose that natural regeneration of reclaimable, underproductive agriculture has the potential to play a key role in lowland tropical forest connectivity, reconnecting now isolated populations of endangered Bornean elephants.

Rapid Expansion of Oil Palm Is Leading to Human–Elephant Conflicts in North Kalimantan Province of Indonesia

Crop raiding by Bornean elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis) is increasing rapidly in North Kalimantan, mainly due to a rapid conversion of swiddens and secondary forest into oil palm plantations...

Habitat fragmentation and genetic diversity in natural populations of the Bornean elephant: Implications for conservation

The Bornean elephant population in Sabah, with only 2000 individuals, is currently mainly restricted to a limited number of forest reserves. The main threats to the species' survival are population fragmentation and isolation of the existing herds. To support and help monitor future conservation and management measures, we assessed the genetic diversity and population structure of Bornean elephants using mitochondrial DNA, microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms. Our results confirmed a previously reported lack of mitochondrial control region diversity, characterized by a single widespread haplotype. However, we found low but significant degree of genetic differentiation among populations and marked variation in genetic diversity with the other two types of markers among Bornean elephants. Microsatellite data showed that Bornean elephants from the Lower Kinabatangan and North Kinabatangan ranges are differentiated and perhaps isolated from the main elephant populations located in the Central Forest and Tabin Wildlife Reserve. The pairwise FST values between these sites ranged from 0.08 to 0.14 (p<0.001). Data from these markers also indicate that the Bornean elephant populations from Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary and North Kinabatangan (Deramakot Forest Reserve) possess higher levels of genetic variation compared to the elephant populations from other areas. Our results suggest that (i) Bornean elephants probably derive from a very small female population, (ii) they rarely disperse across current human-dominated landscapes that separate forest fragments, and (iii) forest fragments are predominantly comprised of populations that are already undergoing genetic drift. To maintain the current levels of genetic diversity in fragmented habitats, conservation of the Bornean elephants should aim at securing connectivity between spatially distinct populations.

Recursion to food plants by free-ranging Bornean elephant.

Plant recovery rates after herbivory are thought to be a key factor driving recursion by herbivores to sites and plants to optimise resource-use but have not been investigated as an explanation for recursion in large herbivores. We investigated the relationship between plant recovery and recursion by elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis) in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah. We identified 182 recently eaten food plants, from 30 species, along 14 × 50 m transects and measured their recovery growth each month over nine months or until they were re-browsed by elephants. The monthly growth in leaf and branch or shoot length for each plant was used to calculate the time required (months) for each species to recover to its pre-eaten length. Elephant returned to all but two transects with 10 eaten plants, a further 26 plants died leaving 146 plants that could be re-eaten. Recursion occurred to 58% of all plants and 12 of the 30 species. Seventy-seven percent of the re-eaten plants were grasses. Recovery times to all plants varied from two to twenty months depending on the species. Recursion to all grasses coincided with plant recovery whereas recursion to most browsed plants occurred four to twelve months before they had recovered to their previous length. The small sample size of many browsed plants that received recursion and uneven plant species distribution across transects limits our ability to generalise for most browsed species but a prominent pattern in plant-scale recursion did emerge. Plant recovery time was a good predictor of time to recursion but varied as a function of growth form (grass, ginger, palm, liana and woody) and differences between sites. Time to plant recursion coincided with plant recovery time for the elephant’s preferred food, grasses, and perhaps also gingers, but not the other browsed species. Elephants are bulk feeders so it is likely that they time their returns to bulk feed on these grass species when quantities have recovered sufficiently to meet their intake requirements. The implications for habitat and elephant management are discussed.

Alternative futures for Borneo show the value of integrating economic and conservation targets across borders.

Balancing economic development with international commitments to protect biodiversity is a global challenge. Achieving this balance requires an understanding of the possible consequences of alternative future scenarios for a range of stakeholders. We employ an integrated economic and environmental planning approach to evaluate four alternative futures for the mega-diverse island of Borneo. We show what could be achieved if the three national jurisdictions of Borneo coordinate efforts to achieve their public policy targets and allow a partial reallocation of planned land uses. We reveal the potential for Borneo to simultaneously retain ∼50% of its land as forests, protect adequate habitat for the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis), and achieve an opportunity cost saving of over US$43 billion. Such coordination would depend on enhanced information sharing and reforms to land-use planning, which could be supported by the increasingly international nature of economies and conservation efforts.

Foraging site recursion by forest elephants Elephas maximus borneensis

Abstract Recursion by herbivores is the repeated use of the same site or plants. Recursion by wild animals is rarely investigated but may be ubiquitous. Optimal foraging theory predicts site recursion as a function of the quality of the site, extent of its last use, and time since its last use because these influence site resource status and recovery. We used GPS collars, behaviour and site sampling to investigate recursion to foraging sites for two elephant Elephas maximus borneensis herds in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Borneo, over a 12 month period. Recursion occurred to 48 out of 87 foraging sites and was most common within 48 hours or between 151–250 days, indicating two different types of recursion. Recursion was more likely to occur if the site had previously been occupied for longer. Moreover, the time spent at a site at recursion was the same as the time spent at the site on the first occasion. The number of days that had passed between the first visit and recursion was also positively correlated with how much time was spent at the site at recursion. Habitat type also influenced the intensity of site-use, with more time spent at recursion within riverine/open grass areas along forest margins compared to other habitat types. Recursion is a common behaviour used by the elephants and its pattern suggests it may be a foraging strategy for revisiting areas of greater value. The qualities of recursion sites might usefully be incorporated into landscape management strategies for elephant conservation in the area [Current Zoology 60 (4): 551–559, 2014].

Plant selection and avoidance by the Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) in tropical forest: does plant recovery rate after herbivory influence food choices?

Abstract:The plant vigour hypothesis proposes that herbivores should favour feeding on more vigorously growing plants or plant modules. Similarly, we would expect herbivores to favour plants that regrow vigorously after herbivory. Larger animals, like elephants, may also select plant species relative to their availability and prefer species with larger growth forms in order to meet their intake requirements. The food preferences of the Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia, were investigated along 12 transects in areas where elephants were recently sighted feeding. One hundred and eighty-two plants were eaten and 185 plants were measured for species availability along transects. Species vigour was determined by the monthly regrowth in new shoot length after elephant feeding and the number of new shoots produced on each plant. Measurements were carried out on each plant for 9 mo or until the new shoot was eaten. Plant sizes were determined from their basal diameter. The Bornean elephant did not prefer more vigorous species or species with larger growth forms. New shoots did not grow longer on preferred than avoided species. Additionally, unlike other elephants that live in a forest environment, the Bornean elephant preferred species from the Poaceae (specifically Phragmites karka and Dinochloa scabrida) over other plant types including gingers, palms, lianas and woody trees.

First parasitological survey of Endangered Bornean elephants Elephas maximus borneensis

Relatively few studies have been carried out on the parasites of free-ranging wild animal species, which has led to a lack of baseline parasitological data. This is a concern because endoparasites can have an important influence on fitness and survival, particularly in small populations of endangered species. This field study is the first parasitological survey of Endangered Bornean elephants Elephas maximus borneensis. Using a special modification of the McMaster method, trematode, cestode and nematode ova were identified in the faeces of wild Bornean elephants in 2 key range areas in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo: the Tabin Wildlife Reserve and the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary. Preliminary comparisons between the sites suggest that prevalence, load and diversity vary between the two, leading to hypotheses on host, parasite and environmental factors which may affect endoparasite infection dynamics in wild Bornean elephants. This study provides an initial catalogue of parasite types in the Bornean elephant and reports on endoparasite prevalence and load, valuable baseline data for future research.

Correction: Two Different High Throughput Sequencing Approaches Identify Thousands of De Novo Genomic Markers for the Genetically Depleted Bornean Elephant

Correction: Two Different High Throughput Sequencing Approaches Identify Thousands of De Novo Genomic Markers for the Genetically Depleted Bornean Elephant