Boredom Proneness Research Articles

How Metacognitions Contribute to Compulsive Online Shopping: An Exploratory Study.

Compulsive Online Shopping (COS) is considered a technological addiction, characterized by excessive engagement in online shopping behaviors that can cause economic, social, and emotional impairments in an individual's life. Among the theoretical models aimed at conceptualizing addictive behaviors, the metacognitive model has gained increased attention. However, no previous study has investigated the role of metacognitions in COS. The current study was aimed at clarifying the contribution of metacognitions about online shopping as potential mediating variables in the relationship between some well-established psychological correlates (i.e., boredom proneness, impulsivity, materialism, negative affect) and COS. A sample of 254 participants (mean age = 34.79 ± 11.45; Females = 84.3%) was recruited using convenience sampling. The hypothesized model produced a good fit to the data and accounted for 48% of COS variance. All the correlates (i.e., boredom proneness, impulsivity, materialism, and negative affect) were significantly and positively associated with Positive Metacognitions About Emotional And Cognitive Regulation, which in turn predicted COS. Boredom proneness and impulsivity were also positively associated with Negative Metacognitions About Uncontrollability And Cognitive Harm of online shopping, which in turn predicted COS. All the indirect effects were significant. The present findings add to the argument that the metacognitive model of addictive behaviors may applied to the understanding of COS and open the possibility of applying metacognitive techniques to the treatment of COS.

“I Am Easily Bored.” Analysis of a Single Item Measure of Boredom

Measuring a variety of human characteristics in large databases has been invaluable for applied (e.g., epidemiology) and basic research (e.g., brain imaging). The sheer volume of data being collected can place high demands on participants. This raises the challenge of how to maximize the reliability of measures while minimizing the burden on participants. We examined the viability of a single item to measure trait boredom proneness by having participants respond to the question “I am easily bored.” Results indicated that this single item effectively captures relations typically observed when using longer state and trait boredom measures. Psychological network analyses suggested that the item accords well with models of trait boredom as a failure to launch. We discuss potential contexts in which deploying a single item of this kind may prove advantageous.

The Roles of Affective Lability, Boredom, and Mindfulness in Predicting Number of Sex Partners within Women

Affective lability, a trait related to borderline personality disorder, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder, is associated with a higher number of lifetime sex partners. Among individuals who are affectively labile, boredom proneness, which has been linked to impulsive and risky sexual behaviors, might increase the likelihood of having more sex partners. Conversely, mindfulness has been found to be associated with healthy emotion regulation and lower impulsivity, and may enable a greater tolerance of affective lability and boredom, and, in turn, lower the sense of urgency to engage in sex to cope. Thus, the present study investigated the links between affective lability, boredom proneness, mindfulness, and number of sex partners in the last year. We predicted that affective lability would be positively associated with number of sex partners, and that this association would be moderated by boredom proneness and mindfulness in a three-way interaction. Adult women (N = 469, Mage = 25.15 years) were recruited from online communities and completed measures of affective lability, boredom proneness, trait mindfulness, and number of sex partners in the last year. None of the preregistered three-way interactions were supported; however, exploratory analyses revealed that, among women who reported rapid changes between depression and elation, those who were less likely to observe thoughts and sensations had more sex partners in the last year. Clinicians and researchers should further investigate which facets of mindfulness may protect against a higher number of sex partners in affectively labile individuals.

From Good Citizens to Bad Apples? The Effect of Boredom Proneness: A Moral Licensing Perspective.

Although boredom proneness has been well-studied, there is still an ongoing scholarly debate about whether boredom can move individuals to act counterproductively or productively. Drawing from a moral licensing perspective, this study empirically investigates how boredom proneness influences interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB), moral meaningfulness, and interpersonal deviance over time. Utilizing a total of 328 three-wave panel data obtained via Amazon Mechanical Turk during a three-month period, we find the following results. First, individuals with a higher initial level of boredom proneness demonstrate a higher initial level of ICB. Second, as boredom proneness increases at a faster rate, ICB increases at a faster rate over time. Third, individuals with a higher initial level of ICB report a higher initial level of moral meaningfulness. Finally, individuals with a higher initial level of moral meaningfulness exhibit a higher initial level of interpersonal deviance. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Personality Functioning, Narcissism and Borderline Traits in the General Population Predict Deviations from the Optimal Time Perspective

Abstract The aim of this article is to clarify and describe the relationships between levels of personality functioning, pathological personality traits from the borderline and narcissistic functioning, and time perspective (TP). The study was conducted online, and 210 participants completed eight questionnaires: Inventory of Personality Organization, Boredom Proneness Scale, Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale, Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire, Depressive Experience Questionnaire, and Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. The results reveal that the pathological personality functioning was consistently associated with a deviation on each dimension of TP and the Deviation from the Balanced Time Perspective (DBTP) while the higher functioning personality indicator was associated with a balanced time perspective. When accounting for all traits in the regression, pathological personality traits predicted variance of Past-Negative, Present-Hedonistic, Present-Fatalistic, and the DBTP. Borderline and narcissistic traits were associated with the DBTP but demonstrated different time perspective profiles. Borderline traits showed an overall negative TP with a tendency to seek quick and intense pleasure in the present with no regards toward the future. These results show that there can be TP profile differences between borderline personalities, depending on their specific trait profile. Impulsivity plays an important role in how borderline personalities cope with their negative temporalities. Vulnerable narcissism is characterized by a negative past with the ability to recruit the future, while grandiose narcissism denotes an overall more balanced time perspective than their vulnerable counterpart.

The effectiveness of an online attention training program in improving attention and reducing boredom

Frequent and intense experiences of boredom may lead to negative consequences. Enhancing sustained attention has been suggested as a potential strategy for mitigating boredom. We investigated the effectiveness of a four-week intervention to improve attention levels in daily activities and alleviate boredom. In this quasi-experiment, 73 adults were allocated to either the intervention group (n = 32), which participated in a four-session online attention training program, or the no-intervention control group (n = 41). Data were collected through baseline and post-intervention questionnaires, as well as experience sampling over a 28-day period. In line with our hypotheses, multilevel modeling results indicated that attention levels in the intervention group increased throughout the training compared to the control group. Additionally, we observed a decrease in state boredom levels and a significant between-group difference in post-intervention boredom proneness. We found that the attention training program was effective in boosting attention levels and reducing boredom experiences and boredom proneness among healthy adults.

Boredom Proneness and Social Media Usage of College Students

This descriptive-predictive study aimed to determine the correlation between the social media usage of college students and their boredom proneness in a University in Davao region. A total of 350 participants were chosen to participate in this study using simple random sampling techniques. A 22-item multidimensional state boredom questionnaire and 21-item social networking usage served as an instrument wherein the Jamovi was used for data analysis. The mean and standard deviation were utilized to test the level of both variables, and results showed that the level of social media usage and boredom proneness among students is high. The Shapiro-Wilk test was utilized to test the normality; it revealed that the data is not normally distributed. The Spearman rho correlation coefficient test revealed a significant relationship between social media usage and students’ boredom proneness, with a p-value of .001, indicating a strong positive correlation. Meanwhile, the result of Linear Regression showed 71% of the variance is explained by the three significant predictors contributing to the students’ social media usage which are Time Perception, Inattention and Disengagement. The study’s findings indicate that increased use of social media is associated with higher levels of boredom. In this case, school administration, local health authorities, and school counseling and guidance offices should enhance the implementation of policies regarding the responsible use of social media, integrate the findings into various programs, and increase public awareness of the effects of excessive social media use on people’s mental health and academic performance. Lastly, researchers should consider extending this topic with a quantitative approach and investigate the possible mediating factors between boredom and social media usage.

The relationship between boredom proneness, the behavioral inhibition system, and anxiety in college students: variable-centered and person-centered analytic approaches.

To explore the relationship among boredom proneness, the behavioral inhibition system, and anxiety among college students based on variable-centered and person-centered analytic approaches. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 1,102 college students from a university in Hebei Province using the Boredom Proneness Questionnaire (BPQ) for College Students, the Behavioral Inhibition System Scale (BIS), and the General Anxiety Disorder-7 scale (GAD-7). The results reveal that boredom proneness was negatively correlated with scores on the behavioral inhibition system (r = -0.100, p < 0.01), and positively correlated with anxiety (r = 0.457, p < 0.001), while the behavioral inhibition system was positively correlated with anxiety (r = 0.086, p < 0.01). In the variable-centered analyses study, it was found that the behavioral inhibition system partially mediated the association between boredom proneness and anxiety. In the person-centered analyses study, three subtypes were identified: the high boredom-low inhibition group (9.35%), the moderate boredom-inhibition group (66.70%), and the low boredom-high inhibition group (23.95%). Individuals in these subtypes showed significant differences in anxiety scores (F = 4.538, p < 0.05), with the low boredom-high inhibition group scoring the highest. The results showed that the behavioral inhibition system partially mediates the relationship between boredom proneness and anxiety in college students; boredom proneness and the behavioral inhibition system exhibit group heterogeneity, with distinct classification features closely related to anxiety.

The Current Status of Internet Fiction Addiction among Chinese Middle School Adolescents and Its Association with Self-Efficacy and Boredom Proneness

With the widespread utilization of the Internet, symptoms associated with Internet Fiction addiction are increasingly prevalent among Chinese netizens. This addictive behavior not only poses risks to personal well-being and emotional stability but also jeopardizes physical health. However, the relevant studies remain scarce and the definition of IFA is controversial. In order to address this gap, a questionnaire survey was conducted on 412 Chinese middle school students to investigate their levels of Internet Fiction addiction, self-efficacy, and boredom proneness. The findings reveal a significant positive correlation between Internet Fiction addiction and boredom proneness while no significant correlation is observed between IFA and self-efficacy. This discrepancy may be attributed to the fact that heightened levels of boredom proneness contribute to mood fluctuations, increased indulgence in daydreaming activities, as well as a distorted perception of time -- all factors that exacerbate the symptoms associated with Internet fiction addiction. The study further investigated risk factors for Internet fiction addiction among Chinese middle school students, enhancing research in this area and providing a reference for the prevention and correction of this issue.

Filling the void: boredom’s associations with hoarding symptom severity

In hoarding disorder, features including attentional difficulties and emotion dysregulation can contribute to the core symptoms of clutter, difficulties discarding, and excessive acquisition. Boredom is a negative feeling state that shares a high level of overlap with associated features of hoarding, including inattention, depressive symptoms, and impulsivity, and has been implicated in compulsive buying behaviors. Boredom may be a particularly relevant factor in compulsive hoarding; however, this relationship remains significantly under-researched. The present studies aimed to thoroughly investigate associations between boredom and hoarding severity using diverse methodologies. Study 1 (N = 253) replicated, in an online community sample, previously reported positive associations between hoarding severity and recent state boredom while statistically controlling for potentially confounding variables (e.g., depression, indecisiveness), and extended these findings to include boredom proneness. In Study 2, individuals with elevated hoarding symptoms (n = 56) and a history of hoarding problems (n = 43) reported higher levels of recent state and trait boredom than controls (n = 61). Additionally, boredom was associated with performance on simulated acquiring and discarding tasks. Finally, Studies 3a (N = 144) and 3b (N = 146) attempted the first experimental tests of induced boredom on acquiring and discarding behaviors. Although results were mixed and preclude causal conclusions, exploratory analyses revealed that individuals reporting higher in-the-moment boredom took more (p = .008) and discarded fewer (p = .021) items on the simulated tasks. Overall, results suggest that boredom may have crucial implications in hoarding symptom severity.

Boredom proneness and phubbing: Fear of missing out as a mediator

Boredom proneness and phubbing: Fear of missing out as a mediator

Spontaneous self-affirmation predicts more meaning and less boredom

Chronic boredom is associated with many negative psychological outcomes, including undermining perceived meaning in life. Meanwhile, emerging research suggests that spontaneous self-affirmation, that is, an inclination to self-affirm, is linked to greater well-being and buffers against psychological threats. We investigated the relationship between spontaneous self-affirmation, perceptions of meaning in life, and boredom proneness with four correlational studies. Study 1a (N = 166) demonstrated that people inclined to self-affirm experience greater perceptions of meaning in life. Study 1b (N = 170) confirmed that spontaneous self-affirmation is associated with lower levels of boredom proneness. Study 2a (N = 214) and Study 2b (N = 105) provided evidence for our central hypothesis, showing that spontaneous self-affirmation predicts lower levels of boredom proneness via greater perceptions of meaning in life. These findings confirm that elevating meaning in life through psychological resources, like spontaneous self-affirmation, may limit boredom. Our work extends the emerging well-being benefits of spontaneous self-affirmation, by demonstrating associations with higher meaning in life and lower boredom proneness.

The Role of Desire Thinking and Craving in Problematic Smartphone Use

The Elaborated Intrusion Theory of desire and the metacognitive model of desire thinking posit that the intensification of craving centres on the initiation of a voluntary cognitive process named desire thinking (DT). The role of DT in eliciting craving has been studied extensively in substance use disorders and, more recently, in some behavioral addictions. The main aim of the current study was to test the mediating role of DT and craving in the association between psychological distress, boredom proneness, and problematic Smartphone use (PSU). Six hundred and forty-six participants (mean age = 27.57 ± 9.64; females = 74.8%) took part in the study and completed a battery of self-report measures. As evidenced by path analysis, psychological distress and boredom proneness were linked to PSU through (i) imaginal prefiguration and verbal perseveration components of DT’s serial mediation; and (ii) imaginal prefiguration and craving’s serial effect. The model accounted for 60% of PSU variance and showed good fit indices. The current findings highlight the role of DT, particularly the imaginal prefiguration, in craving for the Smartphone and provide evidence that DT is associated with PSU directly, supporting the distinction between DT and craving.

Why Do Individuals Engage in Phubbing? An Empirical Study Integrating Fear of Missing Out, Boredom Proneness, Smartphone Use

Increased use of smartphones has necessitated research into its negative psychological and physiological effects on individuals. This study seeks to examine the relationship between psychosocial factors-boredom proneness, fear of missing out (FoMO) and life satisfaction with phubbing. The research also investigates the mediating effect of Phubbing on FoMO, boredom proneness and life satisfaction.&#x0D; Design/Methodology/Approach- A conceptual model is proposed and validated by extending research on smartphone use. A survey of 350 respondents was conducted using purposive sampling technique to empirically test the hypothesized linkages among the constructs using structural equation modeling.&#x0D; Findings- Results of the study confirmed that individuals who engage in phubbing behavior exhibit traits of boredom and FoMO. Findings also reveal that phubbing has a positive effect on life satisfaction. Additionally, results confirm that phubbing mediates the association between FoMO and life satisfaction.&#x0D; Limitations- The sample consisted of only students enrolled at a large, public university in India. While research suggests that students are the largest users of smartphones, and that smartphones are an important aspect of this generation’s culture and identity, our ability to generalize these results to other populations is limited and therefore replicating this study among different demographic and geographic regions will aid in generalizing the findings of the present study.&#x0D; Practical Implications- Findings of this study enrich the literature on smartphone use and reveals that phubbing is a direct consequence of individuals’ desire to gratify social and psychological needs. Outcome of the study also benefit practitioners by allowing them to understand and develop new interventions aimed at the youth so that they can be protected against the negative effects of smartphone use.&#x0D; Originality/Value- The present study attempts to analyze the effect of FoMO and boredom proneness on phubbing. Understanding the predictors of phubbing is important, considering the negative effects of this behavior on life satisfaction. This study makes significant contributions to the existing body of knowledge about how increased fear of missing out, boredom proneness and phubbing may affect overall life satisfaction.

Exploring the relationship between boredom proneness and agency

Boredom is a negatively valanced emotion characterized by a failed desire to engage with some meaningful activity. A diminished sense of control over events in a person's environment may underly the experience of boredom, precipitating the inability to engage meaningfully. In two separate samples we explored the relation between the sense of agency and trait boredom proneness. Data from both samples showed that those high in boredom proneness reported experiencing a lower sense of agency. Regressions indicated that perceived agency accounted for variance in boredom proneness even after taking account of other known associates of the trait (i.e., self-control, regulatory mode). These findings highlight the important role of the sense of agency in trait boredom proneness.

Validation of a German version of the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Multidimensional State Boredom Scale

The scientific interest in boredom is growing over the past decades. Boredom has not only been linked to symptoms of psychopathology, but also shows a remarkable effect on individual behavior under healthy conditions. Current characterizations of boredom in humans mostly rely on self-report assessments which proved to faithfully reflect boredom in a vast range of experimental environments. Two of the most commonly used and prominent self-report scales in order to assess boredom are the Multidimensional State Boredom Scale (MSBS) and the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS). Here, we present the German translations of both questionnaires and their validation. We obtained and analyzed psychometric data from more than 800 healthy individuals. We find that the German MSBS and BPS show vast congruence with their originals in respect to item statistics, internal reliability and validity. In particular, we find remarkable associations of state boredom and trait boredom with indicators of mental burden. Testing the factor structure of both questionnaires, we find supporting evidence for a 5-factor model of the MSBS, whereas the BPS in line with its original shows an irregular, inconsistent factor structure. Thus, we validate the German versions of MSBS and BPS and set a starting point for further studies of boredom in German-speaking collectives.

An Analysis of the Latent Class and Influencing Factors of Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage Among Chinese College Students.

To explore the potential classification of Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage (PMSMU) in Chinese college students, analyze whether there is group heterogeneity in PMSMU, and discuss the differences in the latent profile of PMSMU in fear of missing out, online positive feedback, and boredom proneness. A total of 2591 Chinese college students were investigated using the Problematic Mobile Social Media Usage Questionnaire, Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) Scale, Online Positive Feedback Scale and Short-form Boredom Proneness Scale, and heterogeneity was tested by latent profile analysis. The PMSMU of college students can be divided into three latent profiles: no-problem use group (26.44%), mild problem use group (56.66%), and severe problem use group (16.91%). Male students, as compared to female students, showed a significantly lower likelihood of being classified as mild problematic users (OR=0.50, p<0.001) and severe problematic users (OR=0.29, p<0.001). Additionally, students with higher levels of FOMO, a stronger craving for online positive feedback, and increased boredom proneness are more likely to belong to the severe problematic use group (OR=2.91, p<0.001; OR=1.42, p<0.01; OR=8.72, p<0.001). The results of this study highlight the factors influencing the heterogeneity of individual PMSMU. Specifically, female college students and those with a higher fear of missing out, greater susceptibility to boredom, and a stronger craving for positive online feedback are more likely to exhibit severe PMSMU. These findings provide valuable empirical evidence for developing preventive strategies to address PMSMU among college students.

Disentangling boredom from depression using the phenomenology and content of involuntary autobiographical memories

Recurrent involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs) are memories retrieved unintentionally and repetitively. We examined whether the phenomenology and content of recurrent IAMs could differentiate boredom and depression, both of which are characterized by affective dysregulation and spontaneous thought. Participants (n = 2484) described their most frequent IAM and rated its phenomenological properties (e.g., valence). Structural topic modeling, a method of unsupervised machine learning, identified coherent content within the described memories. Boredom proneness was positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and both boredom proneness and depressive symptoms were correlated with more negative recurrent IAMs. Boredom proneness predicted less vivid recurrent IAMs, whereas depressive symptoms predicted more vivid, negative, and emotionally intense ones. Memory content also diverged: topics such as relationship conflicts were positively predicted by depressive symptoms, but negatively predicted by boredom proneness. Phenomenology and content in recurrent IAMs can effectively disambiguate boredom proneness from depressive symptoms in a large sample of undergraduate students from a racially diverse university.

Fun in a Box? Loneliness and Adolescents' Problematic Smartphone Use: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of the Underlying Mechanisms.

Addictive smartphone use is one of the most concerning behaviors among adolescents. The present study investigated the indirect effects of self-esteem and boredom proneness and the moderating role of the need to belong on the link between loneliness and addictive smartphone use (ASU). Our sample included 357 adolescents aged 12 to 19 (Mage = 15.56, SD = 1.01, 57.42% males) from ten public schools in Romania. We used a moderated mediation approach, with moderation of the both second mediation paths and the direct effect path. Results suggested that the influence of loneliness on ASU was statistically significant and partially mediated both by self-esteem and boredom proneness. Adolescents' need to belong significantly moderated the positive association between boredom proneness and ASU, and the direct negative association between loneliness and ASU; however, it did not moderate the negative association between self-esteem and ASU. Thus, high levels of the need to belong also increased the influence of boredom proneness on AUS and had a marginally significant effect on the relation between loneliness and ASU. These results suggested that adolescents' need to belong, self-esteem, and boredom proneness might contribute to developing ASU. Interventions centered around countering the adverse effects of excessive technology use ought to consider group activities that facilitate social bonding to satisfy the participants' need to belong, reduce their levels of boredom, and, thus, reduce the risk of developing ASU symptoms.

Social Exclusion and Short Video Addiction: The Mediating Role of Boredom and Self-Control.

Short video apps are very popular among Chinese college students, and some students even rely on them. Most of the current research has focused only on Internet addiction and has seldom focused on the phenomenon of short video addiction. Its influencing factors and formation mechanism are worth exploring. This study aimed to explore the relationship between social exclusion and short video addiction among college students and the mediating roles of boredom and self-control. This study adopted a multistage investigation and investigated 532 college students (39% male; mean age 19.32 ± 1.23 years) with a social exclusion scale, boredom proneness scale, self-control scale, and short video addiction scale. The mediating effect was tested with Process 3.1. The results showed that social exclusion has a positive predictive effect on college student's short video addiction. The impact of social exclusion on college student's short video addiction was mediated by boredom and self-control, and the chained mediation of boredom and self-control. Theoretically, this study modified the I-PACE model, indicating that personal and distant social factors should be considered in individuals with behavioral addictions, such as short video addiction. Practically, the results suggested that schools should reduce peer rejection and improve students' mental health literacy to reduce boredom and enhance self-control, thus effectively preventing short video addiction.