Border Issues Research Articles

Detection of Floating Algae Blooms on Water Bodies Using PlanetScope Images and Shifted Windows Transformer Model

The increasing water temperature due to climate change has led to more frequent algae blooms and deteriorating water quality in coastal areas and rivers worldwide. To address this, we developed a deep learning-based model for identifying floating algae blooms using PlanetScope optical images and the Shifted Windows (Swin) Transformer architecture. We created 1,998 datasets from 105 scenes of PlanetScope imagery collected between 2018 and 2023, covering 14 water bodies known for frequent algae blooms. The methodology included data pre-processing, dataset generation, deep learning modeling, and inference result generation. The input images contained six bands, including vegetation indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), enhancing the model’s responsiveness to algae blooms. Evaluations were conducted using both single-period and multi-period datasets. The single-period model achieved a mean Intersection over Union (mIoU) between 72.18% and 76.47%, while the multi-period model significantly improved performance, with an mIoU of 91.72%. This demonstrates the potential of our model and highlights the importance of change detection in multi-temporal images for algae bloom monitoring. Additionally, the padding technique proposed in this study resolved the border issue that arises when mosaicking inference results from individual patches, providing a seamless view of the satellite scene.

India-Bangladesh Conflict: An Overview

Abstract: The India-Bangladesh conflict primarily revolves around historical, territorial and resource-related disputes that have shaped the bilateral relationship between the two neighbouring South Asian countries. Emerging from the Partition of British India in 1947 and the subsequent creation of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), tensions escalated during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, which resulted in Bangladesh's independence with Indian military support. Key areas of conflict have included the demarcation of borders, particularly over the disputed enclaves, the maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal, and the sharing of transboundary river waters, such as the Ganges and the Teesta. While the Land Boundary Agreement of 2015 resolved several border issues, the water-sharing disputes remain unresolved, particularly concerning the Teesta River, which is critical to Bangladesh’s agriculture. Additionally, non-traditional security concerns such as illegal migration, cross-border insurgencies, and trafficking continue to challenge bilateral relations. Nevertheless, India and Bangladesh have strengthened their cooperation in recent years, particularly in trade, energy and regional security, while both countries seek to balance their national interests within a framework of diplomacy and economic interdependence. This overview highlights that while conflict persists in certain areas, India and Bangladesh have made significant strides in resolving disputes and fostering collaboration, although challenges remain in ensuring equitable resource distribution and addressing mutual security concerns.

КЫРГЫЗ РЕСПУБЛИКАСЫНДА ЧЕК АРА КООПСУЗДУГУН КАМСЫЗ КЫЛУУ ҮЧҮН ЧЕК АРА САЯСАТЫН ИШКЕ АШЫРУУНУН КОНСТИТУЦИЯЛЫК НЕГИЗДЕРИ

The article discusses the constitutional basis for the implementation of border policy to ensure border security in the Kyrgyz Republic, development trends in modern conditions of globalization, the impact of globalization on ensuring the security of the state border of the Kyrgyz Republic. Border policy brings the activities of the executive authorities of the Kyrgyz Republic to common views and principles, and also ensures a reasonable combination of today’s opportunities and real needs in resolving many border issues. During the study, the essence of border policy and border security was analyzed, the role of the head of state, government agencies, border service, public associations, and citizens in ensuring border security was studied. The article determines that world experience shows a unified methodological approach for the effective implementation of border policy. In addition, the study identified national interests in the border space of the state, and also determined the direction of comprehensive measures to prevent and neutralize threats by identifying real threats against them.

The Great Game and the border issue in the Pamirs in the reports of Ralph Cobbold, 1898‒1899

The 1890s were a time of growing tension in Central Asia, stemming both from the geopolitical confrontation between the Russian and British empires and from the desire of Afghanistan and China to realise their own national interests and use the struggle of the dominant political forces to their own ends. One of the most difficult issues was the border dispute, i.e. fixing the border between Russia and Afghanistan, on the one hand, and Russia and China, on the other. Britain sought to exploit the differences on this issue to its own advantage, which could well have led to the outbreak of hostilities. The mechanism for identifying weaknesses in Russia’s position in the Pamirs comes out clearly in the 1898‒1899 reports of the British intelligence officer Ralph Cobbold, preserved in the National Archives of India. They characterise the actions of the Russian authorities in the Pamirs, the attitude of the local population to the opposing sides, and potential instruments of local influence that would allow Britain to bring the region under its control. The Russian diplomatic and military administrations were aware of the aspirations of the British Empire and used both the “stick” and the “carrot” to maintain the status quo in the region: in some issues they had to make concessions, in others the Russian side acted rigidly. Such an approach not only kept the Central Asian region in the frames of peaceful development, but also was one of the foundations of the conclusion of the Russian-British pact on the division of spheres of influence in the Middle East and Central Asia in 1907, which put an end to the Great Game and allowed the formation of the Triple Anglo-Franco-Russian alliance.

Social Defense Strategy in Handling Maritime Border Issues in Eastern Indonesia (Case Study on Natuna Island)

Social Defense Strategy in Handling Maritime Border Issues in Eastern Indonesia (Case Study on Natuna Island)

THE IMPACT OF BREXIT ON THE PEACE PROCESS IN NORTHERN IRELAND

The article analyzes Brexit as a factor influencing the Good Friday Agreement and the transformation of the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well as the relationship between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. It is argued that Brexit poses a threat to the security of Ireland and the EU, since it undermines the foundations of the peace process in Northern Ireland and creates the likelihood that the border will be closed on the island of Ireland again. The Good Friday Agreement of 1998 was based on the fact that both signatory states are members of the EU, and many of its provisions will not be implemented after Brexit. It has been proven that after Brexit, the most controversial issue was the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, which became the external border of the EU. The border, which was heavily militarized during the conflict, became virtually invisible after its settlement, and people and goods freely cross it. This became possible largely because both Ireland and the UK were part of the EU single market, a common set of rules that ensures the free movement of goods, services, people and finances within the bloc.It is argued that the new relationship between the EU and the UK, which was agreed during 2020 and implemented from January 2021, resulted in an attempt to resolve the complex border issue, which was carried out in the Northern Ireland Protocol. The arrangements of the Northern Ireland Protocol, according to which Northern Ireland, but not the rest of the UK, remains within the framework of the EU single market for goods, make it possible to maintain an open border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The establishment of an open border was a key aspect of the Northern Ireland peace process and the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, which ended the conflict in Northern Ireland. It is shown that the Northern Ireland Protocol creates a de facto customs border in the Irish Sea between Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom. Mainly to address the concerns of the DUP unionists about the Northern Ireland Protocol, in 2022-2023, the EU and the UK agreed on revised mechanisms for its operation – the Windsor Framework, which entered into force on March 24, 2023. The DUP refused to accept the Framework Program as meeting their interests until early 2024. Further adjustments to its work have not been agreed upon and the formation of a new Northern Ireland executive has not begun. It is proved that Brexit is becoming a new and significant factor in the unification of Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. Brexit has put the issue of the unification of Ireland at the top of the political agenda of both parts of Ireland. The majority of Northern Irish residents voted to remain in the EU in the 2016 UK referendum. Unification would give Northern Ireland, where both British and Irish citizens live, full EU citizenship.

Why China's Periphery Strategy is so Important in its Overall Foreign Policy

China has the largest number of neighbors in the world, nearly 30 in number. A large number of neighbors present historical, religious, ethnic, political, economic, social, and cultural differences. Throughout its history, China has been involved in war disputes and conflicts with several countries, and to this day there are still border and territorial issues that have not yet been resolved. At the same time, China's neighborhood is also a place where the interests of the world's major powers meet. How to deal with its neighborhood is, therefore, the diplomatic key to China's ability to build a stable and harmonious neighborhood security environment and achieve peaceful development. This article focuses on a brief analysis of China's peripheral strategy and the current international situation and peripheral issues facing China. Through a study of the case of the past Diaoyu Islands incident, it illustrates the importance China has to attach to its peripheral strategy in terms of territorial integrity, security, and economic development, as well as a study of the case of the China-ASEAN Expo, which illustrates the improvement of China's geostrategy, economy, soft power and influence in terms of the development of The numerous benefits that the peripheral strategy has brought to China, and the analysis of the two cases to demonstrate the importance of China's peripheral strategy in its overall foreign policy.

China- India Border Crisis: Causes and Implications 1962-2023

For more than seventy years, the Sino-Indo border crisis has become an endless imbroglio with no settlement in sight. Relations between the two Asian giants have soured over the last decade, particularly following a 2020 boundary skirmish between Indian and Chinese soldiers in the Galwan area. The issue of a disputed border emerged in the early 1950s when the People’s Republic of China affected her capture of Tibet. This act created for China and India one of the lengthiest undefined boundaries in the globe. The China-India border stretches for approximately 3,488 kilometers (2,167 miles) across the Himalayan mountain range, separating the two countries. The main areas of contention are the western sector (Aksai Chin region administered by China but claimed by India) and the eastern sector (Arunachal Pradesh region administered by India but claimed by China). This dispute has led to several military standoffs and border skirmishes between the two countries over the years. The intricate and protractedness of this border conflict made this work try to find out the causes and implications of this crisis to the Asian region and the world generally. To do this effectively, we employ secondary sources where data was collected from textbooks, diplomatic records, academic literature, newspapers, journals, magazines, and internet materials. The data collected was analyzed through documentary evidence while the contested border and territorial nationalism theory were used as the analytical tool. The work discovered that factors like unresolved border issues, historical crises, strategic concerns, ideological biases, failed diplomatic negotiations, military considerations, the Tibetan refugees crisis, Cold War dynamics, and limited communications were some of the issues that led to the border crisis between the two Asian giants. Furthermore, the work found out that the implications engendered by the China-India border crisis are severe and expansive like heavy militarization of the China-Indian border, strategic instability in Asia, India’s more assertive foreign policy, China’s global image damage, policy implications, and arms race between the two Asian giants. The work concluded that China and India should strive for a harmonious and sustainable joint boundary commission that will map and mark their boundaries as this option if meticulously and strictly followed will tremendously benefit both and all.

The Claims of Azerbaijan on Zangezur (June- November of 1918)

Key words: Batum, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire, Republic of Armenia, Republic of Azerbaijan, Zangezur, Andranik, border problems Despite the fact that the Treaty of Batumi assumed that the government of the Ottoman Empire would be informed about the agreement concluded between the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan regarding the establishment of interstate borders, this agreement was never reached. The republics had already been proclaimed without marking their borders. Each of the newly-independent states was trying to expand the borders at the expense of the other. Each republic was trying to justify its claims, but in the end it was the political power and the number of weapons that mattered. That was the reason why the relationship between Armenia and Azerbaijan continued to remain tense and hostile. Regarding the status of Zangezur, neither side was going to retreat or at least agree to a compromise. Although Azerbaijan had military advantage and controlled the passages leading to the region, Armenians, who formed the majority of the population of Zangezur, were determined to join Armenia. Because of the entirely different positions on the issue of borders, no allied protocol was signed and no borders were drawn. Concerned about the physical existence of its own people, Armenia tried to establish "bearable" relationship with Azerbaijan and carry out a cautious policy on the issue of Zangezur due to the presence of Turkey. The tense and hostile relationship between Armenia and Azerbaijan continued up to the end of World War I and the withdrawal of Turkish troops from the region.

From Shaheen-II to China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: Pakistan-China Military and Economic Relations (2013-2023) At A Glance

For decades, Pakistan and China enjoyed cordial diplomatic relations, which have now been transformed into a long-standing strategic and economic partnership. The historic silk trade route, development of the Gwadar port, Chashma nuclear power plant, and manufacturing of JF-17 thunder fighter jets were some of the instances of this partnership from the past. In recent years, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), formally agreed upon in 2013, represents a joint commitment to cooperation and development by both states. Following China's "Belt and Road Initiative" (BRI), this project aims to utilize the Eurasian land bridge to connect Pakistan with Central Asia. Despite enormous challenges and threats to Pakistan-China relations posed by Pakistan's border issues, the CPEC is now partially functional, and both states are working on expanding it. With a particular emphasis on strategic and economic aspects, the current study analytically explores the nature of the Pakistan-China relationship. The qualitative approach is applied to identify the relationship changes between countries during 2013 and 2023. Primary and secondary data types will be relied on and utilized to explore the study's findings.

Ermənistanın Azərbaycana qarşı ərazi iddiaları və Qarabağ məsələsi regional siyasi proseslərdə (1918-ci il iyun-oktyabr)

This article deals with the territorial claims of Armenia against Azerbaijan and the diplomatic struggle among related parties after the establishment of independent states in the South Caucasus. Azerbaijani and Armenian delegations at the Istanbul conference on Armenia's territorial claims, and at the same time, details of the negotiations between the diplomatic representatives of the two countries in Tbilisi have been illustrated according to the documents of the archives of Azerbaijan and Turkey and materials from the Istanbul press in 1918. The scale of the territorial claims of Armenia and the arguments referenced by Armenians have been identified. Also, contrary arguments made by the Azerbaijani side against these allegations have been interpreted. Archival documents, notes, and statements of the parties presented on the problem were brought into scientific circulation for the first time. It was concluded that the total territory of Armenia, whose independence was declared on May 30, 1918, was only 9000 km2. This territory was also given to Armenia under a number of conditions. After the declaration of independence, Armenia made territorial claims against all states with which it has a territorial border. The total volume of Armenia's territorial claims is 43500 km2, of which 17600 km2 is directed against Turkey, 16500 km2 against Azerbaijan, and 9400 km2 against Georgia. Armenia referred to racial-national principles, Azerbaijan to ethnic-religious and geographical principles, and Georgia to historical principles to resolve disputed territorial-border issues between South Caucasus republics. The position and behavior of Armenia did not allow to resolve the disputed territorial and border issues between the South Caucasus republics.

SENGKETA STATUS SILALA ANTARA BOLIVIA DAN CHILE BERDASARKAN UNWC 1997

Territorial disputes are border issues between countries that often occur internationally. As happened in the relationship between Bolivia and Chile regarding the dispute over the Silala River, the use of Silala waters began in 1906. Where the two countries were involved in disputes regarding the status and use of Silala. Bolivia emphasized that the Silala spring did not meet the requirements to be considered an international waterway due to the canalization and that Chile had to pay compensation. On the other hand, Chile claims Silala as an international waterway. With these overlapping claims, Silala disputes cannot avoided. This dispute was submitted to the International Court of Justice by Chile on June 6, 2016. This research examines the status of Silala based on UNWC 1997 and the efforts taken by the two countries in resolving the Silala waters dispute. This research is a normative legal research that was collected based on literature studies and analyzed qualitatively with deductive methods and using secondary data. From

Bangladesh – India Border Conflict: Challenges and Opportunities

Geographically adjacent and friendly nations in South Asia are Bangladesh and India. The boundary's approximate 5138 km total length is made up of a 4427 km land border and a 711 km water border. India and Bangladesh have a 4,096-kilometer border. While India has five border provinces, Bangladesh has 32 border districts. Bangladesh and India both have bilateral problems that date back to their inception. Since the early 1990s, the two countries' economic ties have been expanding quickly. Due to border killing by the Indian Border Security Force, human trafficking, and other concerns between these two nations, the border issue has taken center stage. (BSF). The boundary between Bangladesh and India, according to the US-based news organization "Global Post," is the worst border line in the world. They are acting erratically near the boundary, killing, kidnapping Bangladeshis, violating human rights, and committing push-in offenses, among other things. The primary sources used in this study are scholarly books, scholarly journals, research papers, and other tertiary sources that are pertinent to the topic. Although the research is qualitative, a quantitative approach is also taken. This essay looks at the current problems surrounding border killing along the land border between India and Bangladesh, finding its causes and contributing factors as well as its detrimental effects on bilateral relations. The paper also includes a number of suggestions for preventing the issue of border killings along the land border between India and Bangladesh.

Contextualizing Borders in East Asia: An Introduction

ABSTRACT There have been discussions on the validity of theorising border studies since the beginning of this century. The nature of borderlands encompassing borders may be understood from a generalised perspective, but this special section argues the importance of contextualising borders from an appropriate theoretical framework built on preceding works. From such a viewpoint, this special section investigates various aspects of East Asia’s borders and borderlands and contextualises them in the region’s dynamic geopolitical and geoeconomic contexts. The selected four articles focus mainly on border issues in China, North Korea, Okinawa, Taiwan and Hong Kong, showing that East Asia, particularly the East China Sea region, consists of non-conventional borders and that deviations from the Westphalian sovereign territory characterise East Asian borderlands. These articles persuasively illustrate how the ‘contextual theorisation’ of borders in East Asia becomes possible by identifying the common aspects shared by their cases. I conclude that bringing in a regional or trans-border/local framework for border studies can deepen our understanding of borders and borderlands and guide us in a better direction of research and practice.

Engendering Care in the Politics of the East Bengali Refugee Identity: A Reading of Bengal Partition Narratives Through the Lens of Ecological and Culinary Citizenship

The ‘politics of care’ has become an essential dialectical discourse within the field of ecofeminism with the intervention of theorist Sherilyn Macgregor. The engendering of care has politicized the figure and the status of the woman within and beyond the domestic space. Further, this discourse has gone beyond the cultural domain of domesticity to realign itself with the understanding of care work in the light of ecological citizenship. In the light of this my paper proposes to revisit South Asian partition historiography to look at the figure of the refugee. I wish to look at the Bengal Partition of 1947 and discern how the East Bengali refugee maneuvers their identity vis-à-vis their claim of ecological and culinary citizenship. Sunanda Sikdar’s novel A Life Long Ago, translated by Anchita Ghatak for Penguin and the recipient of the Ananda Puraskar 2010 award, is a memoir that reproduces the anxieties that are part of the division of Bengal and the subsequent interruption, creation, preservation of the notion of citizenship and the instituting and the drawing of the national border that separates India from Bangladesh, erstwhile East Pakistan. Meanwhile, the anthology edited by Bashabi Fraser, Bengal Partition Stories: An Unclosed Chapter, contains multiple stories that problematize the notion of national borders specifically by challenging these political lines vis-à-vis the culinary code. Through selective stories from the anthology mentioned and Sikdar’s memoir, the paper seeks to address the issue of citizenship and national borders through the realm of the kitchen, food consumption and domesticity and how the gastronomic experience is informed by the ecofeminist rhetoric of the ‘politics of care’. I would also look at Bhaswati Gosh’s debut novel Victory Colony 1950, and Madhushree Ghosh’s culinary memoir Khabaar: An Immigrant Journey of Food, Memory, and Family, which threaten and dismantle the gender binaries embedded within the discourse of care politics.

Theorising Scenarios for Resumption of Indo-China Border Talks

Border issues between India and China are complex and fundamental in nature. There were negotiations immediately after independence, but, still led to 1962 War between the two countries. Historically efforts to negotiate Borders were held 45 times from 1981 to 219 in various formats as JWG and SR talks. Further WMCC at Jt Secy level est in 2012 and met 26 times and Corps Commander level talks post Galwan met 21 times till Feb 2024. Clearly China does not wish to negotiate borders and plans to use it as a leverage at opportune moments. There is a typical stalemate since China feels that borders is a settled issue, while India’s stand is to resolve border issues before normalisation of relations. The idea of this article is to theorise scenarios is original, based on open source material and attempt to visualise contingencies that could lead towards breaking this stalemate in border talks. Currently there are no journals or books written on this subject by scholars, though, some of them are writing open source articles and discussing on these lines in some seminars. The endeavour is to connect the dots and link them to resumption of talks forstabilisation of borders between India and China.

������� �� ���������� ����������-�������ί IJ������Ҳ �� IJ���ֲ ²���²�������Ҳ ϲ����IJ�� ������� ���������� �������

Based on the analysis of the experience of operational and service activities of the State border protection units, as well as regulatory and legal documents on the construction of the State border protection, the author summarises the content of the concept "construction of operational and service activities". The practical content of this concept is implemented by the following components: prevention of illegal changes to the State border; ensuring compliance with the State border regime; ensuring control over compliance with the border regime on the example of the content reflection of the main function of the border agency ? protection of the State border. The substantiation of detailing the individual components of the operational and service activities of the State border protection unit reveals the sequence of building this activity with regard to its substantive complexity. A methodology for building operational and service activities at the site of a State border protection unit is proposed. The scientific novelty of the methodology lies in generalising the sequence of work of the head of a State border protection unit on combating offences on border issues. The application of the methodology will create conditions for the expedient use of forces and means of the State border protection unit, will allow to increase the efficiency of the work of the relevant managers and to consider more fully the factors influencing the results of the operational and service activities of the unit.

LEGITIMNOST MEĐUREPUBLIČKOG RAZGRANIČENjA U KOMUNISTIČKOJ JUGOSLAVIJI I MOGUĆE GEOPOLITIČKE POSLEDICE TOG PROCESA U NOVIM OKOLNOSTIMA

The internal, republican borders between the federal units were declared internationally recognized after the dissolution of the former common state. As such, they were accepted by the most important international actors, and the membership of the former Yugoslav republics in the OUN took place according to the limits determined by the principles of the Second Session of the AVNOY in Jajce in 1943. Despite the fact that in this way and with the assistance of the international community, the demarcation process was finally legalized, the question of its legitimacy remained open. Especially if one takes into account the escalation of the Ukrainian crisis from February 2022 and the accompanying re-actualization of the issue of borders in the former communist federations. The paper consists of four parts. The first part presents the way of making the decision on the federalization of Yugoslavia and demarcation within the country. The second part is dedicated to the events during the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia, with reference to the work of the so-called Badinter Commission and the “internationalization” of internal borders. The third part analyzes the impact of the escalation of the Ukrainian crisis on the re-actualization of the issue of legitimacy of demarcation, while the fourth is reserved for concluding considerations.

Halal Tourism and Industry in Blue Economy (Analysis on Kepulauan Riau Challenges Towards the Cross Border strategic location with neighbouring countries Singapore and Malaysia – Case Study Pulau Penyengat)

Kepulauan Riau’s strategic geographic position, particularly its proximity to Singapore and Malaysia, offers immense potential for the development of Halal tourism and industry within the Blue Economy framework. This research focuses on Pulau Penyengat Island, a historically and culturally significant Islamic site, and examines the challenges and opportunities posed by the maritime border issues in this region. The study employs a qualitative methodology, utilizing interviews with local stakeholders, policymakers, and industry experts, alongside document analysis of regulatory frameworks and regional agreements. Key themes identified include cross-border cooperation, the impact of maritime border disputes on tourism development, and the integration of Halal standards in tourism and industry. Findings indicate that while Pulau Penyengat is poised to become a focal point for Halal tourism, challenges related to maritime boundaries and regulatory inconsistencies with neighboring countries complicate its progress. By addressing these challenges through targeted policies and collaborative frameworks, Kepulauan Riau can capitalize on its strategic location to enhance its Halal industry and contribute to sustainable Blue Economy initiatives. This study provides actionable insights for policymakers seeking to navigate maritime border complexities while promoting economic and cultural growth.

The Role of the German-Polish Border Issue in West German-Soviet Relations 1989/90

The Role of the German-Polish Border Issue in West German-Soviet Relations 1989/90