Blue Nile Province Research Articles

Visceral Leishmaniasis Outbreak in South Sudan 2009–2012: Epidemiological Assessment and Impact of a Multisectoral Response

The humanitarian situation in South Sudan is dire, with over two million returnees since 2005 and another 300,000 expected to return by the end of 2013. In 2012, 170,000 refugees settled in five camps in Unity and Upper Nile states, endemic areas of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Sudan Humanitarian Update 1st Quarter 2012). VL in South Sudan is endemic in four states, namely Upper Nile, Unity, Jonglei, and Eastern Equatoria, where 2.7 million people in 28 counties are considered to be at risk. It is an anthroponosis caused by Leishmania donovani, and the vectors are Phlebotomus orientalis and P. martini. South Sudan is suffering from recurrent epidemics in areas previously considered to be nonendemic [1]. VL in South Sudan was first described in a child from Bahr-el-Ghazal in 1904 [2]. Since then, outbreaks have been reported in several different areas, namely Jonglei state in the 1930s and 60s [3], [4], the former Blue Nile province in the 50s [5], and Unity state (formerly Western Upper Nile) in the 80s, until by the 90s it was claimed that almost one-third of the population had been affected between 1984 and 1994 [6]–[8]. In 1994 and in 2002 there were two further outbreaks in northern Jonglei and Eastern Upper Nile states, resulting in 17,000 cases reported. Since 2002, the number of cases reported has progressively decreased to reach 582 in 2008. From 2004 to 2008, an average of 1,756 cases were reported annually, although the actual number of cases was estimated to be between 7,400 and 14,200 cases [9]. Until 2004, VL treatment services were provided almost exclusively by Medecins Sans Frontieres-Holland (MSF-H), after which time part of the VL-treatment activities were handed over to the Southern Sudan Secretariat of Health. In addition to this, the World Health Organization (WHO) supported eight health facilities run by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and in 2009, that network was expanded to 12. Another VL outbreak was declared in 2009 and it is still ongoing. This publication provides a detailed report on the epidemiology of and the response to this outbreak.

British Colonial Military Recruitment Policy in the Southern Kordofan Region of Sudan, 1900–1945

British Colonial Military Recruitment Policy in the Southern Kordofan Region of Sudan, 1900–1945

Gender and alliance in central Sudan

Sudanese women have a stock of mother-in-law/daughter-in-law stories, documenting specific sources of tension inherent in this society where marriages are traditionally arranged and local endogamy is preferred within the patriline. In recent years, however, socio-economic developments within the Sudan have led to changes in both family composition and the range of opportunities available to women, which are mitigating this particular relationship and leading to new alliances between women. Drawing on data from the town of Sennar, Blue Nile Province, this paper looks at some of the factors contributing to these changes, as well as considers the various networks of relationships in which women participate when they move to an urban area.

Sur la route du pèlerinage : les Peuls au Soudan.

C. Delmet — A Note about the Fulani in Sudan. There is evidence of Fulani living in the Sudan for at least two centuries. They first came as pilgrims on their way to Mecca or for other religious reasons (Mahdism ... ). In the 20th century, political and economie motivations, ranging from the conquest of Nigeria to the development of the Sudan, have become decisive. Although a few stud-ies (e g by Maiurno, Roseires) have been made about sedentary Fulani in Dar Fur and Blue Nile, the nomadic Fulani who entered southern Kordofan after 1920 have not attracted scholarly attention. Since 1950, they have been quarreling over pastures with Arab tribes (Rufa'a, Kenana . . . ) in the Blue Nile Province and along the Ethiopian border from Kurmuk to Gedaref.

The effect of Caryedon serratus Olivier (Col., Bruchidae) on viability and germination of seeds of Acacia nilotica (L. Willd. ex Del.) in the Sudan

Seeds of Acacia nilotica (L. Willd. ex Del.) were sampled from the standing trees, the forest floor and in storage facilities, for infestation by insect-seed borers in the Blue Nile Province in the Sudan. Higher rates of infestation by the larvae of the seed weevil Caryedon serratus Olivier (Col., Bruchidae) were recorded. The larvae of C. serratus bore into the seeds via small holes and feed on the embryo and the endosperm, leaving all infested seeds non-viable. As the seeds are the only means of regenerating A. nilotica forests, infestations by the seed weevils present a serious problem. Generally, the mean infestation rate was extremely high in stored seeds (80–90%), moderate in pods on the forest floor (20%) and least in pods from the standing trees (10%). The results confirmed that C. serratus is a serious pest of stored seeds (Howe, 1952; Amaro, 1958; Green, 1959; Cancella de Fonseca, 1964). The mean infestation rate was significantly ( P = 0.05) higher in pods on the forest floor than in pods from the standing trees. In Wad Dabkara forest, the mean infestation rate was 10.7% and 11.1% in pods from the standing trees in gerf and maya site types, respectively, whereas the mean infestation rate was 17.2% and 16.7% in pods on the forest floor in gerf and maya, respectively. In Wad El Guzuoli forest, the mean infestation rate was 10.8% and 12.5% in pods from the standing trees in gerf and maya, respectively, whereas the mean infestation rate was 16.6% and 17.6% in pods on the forest floor in gerf and maya, respectively. Examination of stored seeds revealed extremely higher infestation rates of 87.8%, 87.6% and 90% of the total number of sampled seeds stored in Sennar, Singa and Wad Medani, respectively. Germination test results have shown that all infested seeds failed to germinate compared with uninfested seeds which gave normal germination. The study suggests collection of good quality insect-free seeds for storage, and treatment of seeds with a suitable contact insecticide or a fumigant to provide further protection during storage. Spraying the seeds or pods in the field is not recommended as the pods are used as a local medicine (probably because of their high tannin content) and they are also an important source of fodder for animals, especially during the very dry and hot summer season.

Sudan I: Music of the Blue Nile Province; The Gumuz Tribe

Sudan I: Music of the Blue Nile Province; The Gumuz Tribe

HLA genotypes and variant alleles in Sudanese families of Arab-Negroid tribal origin

The indigenous population of the Blue Nile Province, Sudan, is an Arab-Negroid admixture, although some isolates of west African origin (Fallata) have begun to intermix with the indigenous population. Consanguineous marriages are common in these Muslim families. Members of 22 nuclear families were typed for HLA class I and II antigens using complement-dependent microcytotoxicity with Ninth International Workshop (9th WS) and local reagents. Considerable polymorphism was observed at each locus with a majority of the World Health Organization (WHO)-recognized alleles represented in the parental sample, albeit at low frequency. Seven parental haplotypes carried A locus alleles which were not identical to WHO-recognized specificities. All appeared to be Aw19-related specificities. Five B locus serologic variants were observed; all appeared distinct from WHO-recognized specificities. In one family we observed a new DR-DQ association; DR4 segregated with DQw2, rather than with DQw3. As has been observed for several other genetic systems in these tribes, considerable polymorphism was found for all class I and class II gene products in spite of a high level of consanguinity. Tribal admixture and/or a selective advantage in protecting the population against disease may account for this unexpectedly high level of heterozygosity.

Onchocerca armillata Railliet and Henry, 1909 and Onchocerca gutturosa (Neumann, 1910) in camels (Camelus dromedarius L.) in the Sudan.

A study undertaken to determine the Onchocerca species infecting camels that live in the same localities as cattle in the Dinder Region, Blue Nile Province, Sudan revealed concurrent infections with the bovine parasites Onchocerca armillata in the thoracic aorta, brachiocephalic trunks and brachial arteries and Onchocerca gutturosa in the ventral side of the lamellar parts of the ligamentum nuchae. The microfilariae of both species had the same predilection sites in the skin of the ears, head and neck regions. Those of O. gutturosa outnumber those of O. armillata but both are smaller than the respective uterine microfilariae. Males and microfilariae of both species are smaller than those of cattle origin.

Ticks (Acari:Ixodidae) of the Blue and White Nile ecosystems in the Sudan with particular reference to theRhipicephalus sanguineus group

Twenty-four adult ixodid tick species, infesting livestock and some wildlife hosts along the Blue and White Nile in the Sudan, were identified. Three species, Boophilus geigyi, Rhipicephalus camicasi and R. bergeoni, were recorded for the first time from the Sudan. Tick numbers on indigenous breeds of cattle (Bos indicus) were relatively low, ranging between 17.1 and 40.5 per animal. Young cattle grazing with the herd carried significantly fewer ticks than older animals. With the exception of B. annulatus and R. simus, which have extended their distribution further north into Blue Nile, Gezira and Khartoum Provinces, the distribution patterns of the most important cattle ticks have been relatively unchanged over the past 30 years. The Rhicicephalus sanguineus group was represented by six species. R. camicasi was the only species present on cattle, sheep and goats in the north in Kassala and Khartoum Provinces, whereas this species occurred sympatrically with R. guilhoni and R. turanicus further south in Gezira and Blue Nile Provinces. In the Southern Region of the Sudan only R. turanicus and R. guilhoni were present, the latter being by far the predominant species, with peak activity towards the end of the rains in the Jonglei Canal Area. R. bergeoni was collected once, from cattle near the Ethiopian border in Blue Nile Province, whereas R. sanguineus sensu stricto was collected throughout the study area, from domestic dogs only. Finally, R. sulcatus was found once on a hare. The distributions of the common tick species are correlated with the occurrence of tick-borne diseases of domestic animals and recommendations for the control of tick-borne diseases and their vectors in the Sudan are given.

Natural infections of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) and African red monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) in Sudan with taeniid cysticerci.

Abdominal cysticercosis due to Taenia hydatigena has been recorded as an occasional finding in sub-human primates in several countries in West Africa (Stiles and Hussall, 1929, U.S. Pub. Health Serv. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 152: 409-601), Kenya and Taiwan (Kuntz and Myers, 1967, Primates 8: 83-88). In the course of collecting specimens of vervet and African red monkeys for medical research in central Sudan, animals were encountered with grossly enlarged abdomens. At necropsy these, and others not visibly affected while alive, were found to harbor large cysticerci. Fifty-two vervet monkeys and 26 African red monkeys were live-trapped in Blue Nile province in central Sudan. The animals were taken to Khartoum and, after experimental use, they were necropsied and examined thoroughly for parasites. Specimens were measured and fixed in buffered formalin after dissection from the fibrous host capsules. Individual scolices were removed from 23 representative cysticerci and squashed and cleared in Hoyer’s medium for microscopy. The numbers of hooks, and their shapes and sizes, were recorded and compared with published characteristics of taeniid metacestodes. Ten vervet and 10 African red monkeys were infected with cysticerci with intensities of 1-30 (mean, 6.7) and 1-26 (mean, 5.1), respectively. Most infections consist-

Developments in the Sudan Parks

The Sudan today has three National Parks and fifteen game reserves. In addition there are sanctuaries and forest reserves where hunting is forbidden.Dinder National Park covers 7120 sq. km (2750 sq. miles) and lies 406 km (315 miles) south-east from Khartoum, near the Ethiopian border in Blue Nile Province. Its fine assemblage of game includes elephant (during the rains), hippopotamus, giraffe, buffalo, roan antelope, waterbuck, tiang, greater kudu, red-fronted and Soemmering's gazelle, reedbuck, bushbuck, oribi, duiker, Salt's dikdik, warthog, bush pig, lion, leopard, cheetah, hyaena, wild dog, grivet and red hussar monkeys, and baboon. According to Dr William Dasmann (in litt. August 1972) the status of tora and lelwel hartebeest is uncertain. It has been decided not to reintroduce hippopotamus as poachers would be the only gainers.

Leishmaniasis in the Sudan Republic

Leishmaniasis in the Sudan Republic

Observations on Cotton Thrips in the Gezira, Blue Nile Province, Sudan, in 1918–19.

From conversations that the writer has had, it would appear that this thrips (identified by Mr. R. S. Bagnall as Heliothrips indicus, Bagn.) has been known on the Gezira cotton for about three years, and is popularly called “dry asal” in contradistinction to the work of the “asal fly” (Aphis sorghi, Theo.) The natives have been acquainted with this insect for some time. The reason suggested for the enormous damage done by itis that the cotton is too scattered, and it is stated that if cotton were cultivated in larger blocks, the thrips might be viewed with equanimity.